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Ethical issues essay (Unit IV)

2007-07-27T19:59:00.001-07:00

Who should reproduce?

Some people think that people over the age of thirty five should not reproduce. This is because women who become pregnant after the age of thirty five have a much higher chance of giving their children Down Syndrome, or other diseases involved with aging. Other people think that teenagers should not be able to reproduce because they cannot take care of their own body, so how are they able to care for a child of their own? It is scientifically been proven that women over the age of 35, and 40 have a much higher chance of giving their child a horrible disease, or raising children that innately have a lower intelligence that children born of 25 year old parents. It is also proven that teenagers don’t usually have the means, or the knowledge of how to properly care for themselves, and as a result, poorly affect their child’s health, and mental state. Although these perspectives on who should reproduce have some grain of truth to them, we can’t control people into thinking when the proper age is for children. Many adults also wait so long to have children, because they want to make sure that their children will be well cared for by their growing careers, and make sure that they are financially stable before they start to raise children. Some teens may actually also want to have children, because they are ready to become adults, and have always wanted to start a family. Either way, our society should not tell people what they can and can’t do, based on what they believe to be the proper thing to do.

Unit IV Lab Project

2007-07-26T22:27:00.000-07:00

Bacteria found in yogurt :
Scientific name ~ Lactobacillus bulgaricus
Common name ~ Bacteria in yogurt
Ecological principle ~ Commensal
This is considered a domesticated species because it is in our food

Golden retriever:
Scientific name ~ Canis familiaris
Common name ~ Golden retriever
Ecological principle ~ Symbiotic
This is considered a domesticated species because of evolution

Chow:
Scientific name ~ Canis familiaris
Common name ~ Chow chow
Ecological principle ~ Symbiotic
This is considered a domesticated species because of evolution

Green algae:
Scientific name ~ Halimeda cuneata
Common name ~ Green algae
Ecological principle ~ Commensal
This is considered a non-domesticated species because it grows freely outdoors

Pine tree:
Scientific name ~ pinus monticola
Common name ~ Pine tree
Ecological principle ~ mutualism
This is considered a domesticated species because we are able to have them in our yards.

Bananas:
Scientific name ~ Musa acuminata Colla
Common name ~ Banana
Ecological principle ~ Commensal
This is considered a domesticated species because it is in our food

Apple:
Scientific name ~ Malus domestica
Common name ~ Apple
Ecological principle ~ Commensal
This is considered a domesticated species because it is in our food

Cheese:
Scientific name ~ Caseus
Common name ~ Cheese
Ecological principle ~ Commensal
This is considered a domesticated species because it is in our food

Coffee:
Scientific name ~ Gymnocladus dioicus
Common name ~ Coffee
Ecological principle ~ Commensal
This is considered a domesticated species because it is in our food

Milk:
Scientific name ~ Silybum
Common name ~ Milk
Ecological principle ~ Commensal
This is considered a domesticated species because it is in our food

Deer:
Scientific name ~ Antilocapra Americana
Common name ~ Deer
Ecological principle ~ Commensal
This is considered a non-domesticated species because people don’t usually own them, they run free.

Chipmunks:
Scientific name ~ Eutamias
Common name ~ Chipmunk
Ecological principle ~ Commensal
This is considered a non-domesticated species because people don’t usually own them, they run free.

Cactus:
Scientific name ~ Peromyscus eremicus
Common name ~ Cactus
Ecological principle ~ mutualism
This is considered a domesticated species because it is a plant that
People can have, but usually grows freely outdoors.

Javalina:
Scientific name ~ Pecari tajacu
Common name ~ Javalina
Ecological principle ~ Commensal
This is considered a non-domesticated species, and people don’t own
These as pets.

Raccoon:
Scientific name ~ Procyon lotor
Common name ~ Raccoon
Ecological principle ~ Commensal
This is considered a non-domesticated species, and people don’t own
These as pets.

Skunk:
Scientific name ~ Conepatus mesoleucus
Common name ~ Skunk
Ecological principle ~ parasitic
This is considered a non-domesticated species because people don’t
Usually own these as pets, and avoid contact with them.

Squirrels:
Scientific name ~ Sciurus aberti
Common name ~ Squirrel
Ecological principle ~ Commensal
This is considered a non-domesticated species, because people don’t
Usually own squirrels as pets.

Pigeons:
Scientific name ~ Columba fasciata
Common name~ Pigeon
Ecological principle ~ Commensal
This is considered a non-domesticated species of bird, which people
Don’t usually own.

Roadrunner:
Scientific name ~ Geococcyx californianus
Common name ~ Roadrunner
Ecological principle ~ Commensal
This is considered a non-domesticated species of bird, which people
Don’t usually own

Coral snake:
Scientific name ~ Micruroides euryxanthus
Common name ~ Coral snake
Ecological principle ~ Commensal
This is considered a non-domesticated species of reptile, and people can,
But don’t commonly own these.

Quail:
Scientific name ~ Colinus virginianus
Common name ~ Quail
Ecological principle ~ Commensal
This is considered a non-domesticated species of bird, and people don’t
Commonly own these.

Coyote:
Scientific name ~ Canis latrans Say
Common name ~ Coyote
Ecological principle ~ Commensal
This is considered a non-domesticated version of a dog, which people
Don’t usually own.

Daisy:
Scientific name ~ Erigeron
Common name ~ Daisy
Ecological principle ~ mutualism
This is considered a domesticated plant species, people own these.

Juniper:
Scientific name ~ Juniperus
Common name ~ Juniper
Ecological principle ~ Commensal
This is considered a domesticated plant species, people can have these.

Mesquite:
Scientific name ~ Prosopis
Common name ~ Mesquite
Ecological principle ~ Commensal
This is considered a domesticated plant species, but is free also.

Ponderosa:
Scientific name ~ P. ponderosa
Common name ~ Ponderosa
Ecological principle ~ Commensal
This is considered a domesticated plant species, but is free also

Sagebrush:
Scientific name ~ Artemisia
Common name ~ Sagebrush
Ecological principle ~ Commensal
This is considered a domesticated plant species, but is free also

Spruce:
Scientific name ~ Picea
Common name ~ Spruce
Ecological principle ~ Commensal
This is considered a domesticated plant species, but is free also

Yucca:
Scientific name ~ Yucca schidigera
Common name ~ Yucca
Ecological principle ~ Commensal
This is considered a domesticated plant species and is used frequently

Grasshopper:
Scientific name ~ Trimerotropis melanoptera
Common name ~ Black-winged grasshopper
Ecological principle ~ Commensal
This is considered a non-domesticated species of insect because people don’t usually own as pets.

Cricket:
Scientific name ~ Anabrus simplex
Common name ~ Cricket
Ecological principle ~ Commensal
This is considered a non-domesticated species of insect because people don’t usually own as pets

Online lab activity #2 (Unit IV)

2007-07-26T20:37:00.000-07:00

NOTE: Havin g trouble posting all pictures

1. What was your high fertility rate country and what was its fertility rate?
The United States. The fertility rate set at 10.2. What was your low fertility rate country and what was its fertility rate?
China. The fertility rate set at 2.3. The initial demographic "shape" of your high fertility rate country should have been a pyramid, with high population in young age groups. Explain why high fertility rate results in a high percentage of young people in the population. How does this affect future population growth?
When the fertility rate was increased, then the fertility rate results in a high percentage of young people in the population. This would affect future population growth because there would be more young people having children, and therefore the percentage of young people would continue to rise.4. Your low fertility rate country might have had a more oval-shaped curve with high population in middle age groups. This is especially exaggerated if the fertility rate is below 2.00. Explain why low fertility rate leads to lots of middle-aged people.
The set fertility rate was set at two, which can result in a high population in middle age groups. This would affect future population growth because there would be more adults, and therefore the percentage of children would decrease.5. Write ten adjectives or descriptive phrases for what you might expect life, people's attitudes, conditions on the streets, etc. will be like in each of those situations. Imagine a situation with lots of middle-aged and older people in the population and write ten quick "brain-storm" descriptors for you think it would be like (Prescott, Arizona?). Then do the same for a situation with lots of children in the population.
Younger population: Chaotic, crazy, immature, weird, riot, loud, noisy, disorganized, incompetent, confused.

Online lab activity #1 (Unit IV)

2007-07-26T20:12:00.000-07:00

NOTE: I couldn't post the pictures, so I posted other pictures that I found.

List of significant events during fetal development:

1.) Fertilization is the process when the sperm and egg unit in one of the fallopian tubes to form a one-celled entity called a zygote.
2.) Second week
3.) This is significant because this is the period when the genetic material is sorted out, to determine what you will look like when you’re born.
4.) http://content.revolutionhealth.com/contentimages/images-image_popup-r7_fertilization.jpg

1.) Implantation is the time the zygote is made up of 500 cells, and is known as a blastocyst.
2.) Third week
3.) This is significant, because by the end of this week, you are able to tell if you are pregnant by a test.
4.) http://www.aapsj.org/articles/aapsj0802/aapsj080250/aapsj080250_figure4.jpg

1.) When the embryonic period begins, the baby’s brain, spinal cord, heart, and other organs begin to form.
2.) Fourth week
3.) This is significant because without the healthy development of these organs, the child could have problems throughout their entire lives.
4.) http://www.nonprofitpages.com/mcfl/Early.jpeg

1.) The baby’s heart will begin to beat, and the circulatory system is taking shape, and can be detected with an ultrasound.
2.) Fifth week
3.) This is significant because the heart is the most important organ, and needs to constantly checked (ultrasounds can help with this)
4.) http://health.yahoo.com/media/mayoclinic/images/slideshow/pr22_4chamber.jpg

1.) The neural tubes in a baby’s back are now closed, and a baby’s heart is beating with a regular rhythm.
2.) Sixth week
3.) This is significant because growth is one of the most rapid during this week of development.
4.) http://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/Notes/images/neuron/image_002.gif
1.) The umbilical cord is the link between the baby and the placenta.
2.) Week 7
3.) This is important because this is when the baby is able to receive nutrients from the mother’s food and drinks.

1.) Baby’s fingers and toes start to form, wrists, elbows, and ankles are visible, and the baby’s eyelids are starting to form.
2.) Week 8
3.) This is important because the baby’s limbs are starting to forms

1.) Movement begins, and the embryonic tail at the bottom of the baby’s spinal cord is shrinking, and making them look more human.
2.) Week 9
3.) This is important because the baby can now connect with its mother by moving.

1.) Neurons multiply, and the baby’s vital organs have a solid foundation.
2.) Week 10
3.) This is important because the baby’s ears can start to form, and tooth buds are forming as well.

1.) A baby’s sex may be apparent, and its weight with multiply by thirty, and its length will triple.
2.) Week 11This is important because it is considered the “halfway” mark of conception, and the baby is now officially called a fetus.

Compendium Review #2 (Unit IV)

2007-07-26T17:49:00.000-07:00

Human landscapes:

There are several theories of the development of human kind. Two of the most popular theories are that God created everything, and the people evolved into what they are today, in the theory of evolution. However humans were created, we are able to interact with many things in our environment. According to Professor Frolich, in a community, relationships among species can be beneficial, damaging, or neutral.
There are five different types of relationships including symbiotic, parasitic, commensal, mutualism, and predation. Symbiotic simply means that both organisms benefit from interaction (Frolich). Another type of relationship is parasitic, which one species that is the parasite benefits, and the other species known as the host is harmed (Frolich). An addition type of relationship is commensal, which one species directly benefits, but instead of the other being harmed, the species is neutral and isn’t harmed or benefited (Frolich). The fourth type of relationship, known as mutualism, is where both species benefit, similar to symbiosis, but it may appear that one species has the advantage (Frolich). Though this is true, over a long-term period, both species actually benefit (Frolich). Lastly, predation (sometimes considered parasitic), where the predator is the parasite, but can also be seen as mutualistic (Frolich).

Deep time evolutionary history:

According to Professor Frolich, in order to understand evolution, we need to have an appreciation for deep time – time stretching beyond what is easy to intuitively grasp. Deep time is the concept of geologic time which was first recognized in the 1700’s in the western world by Scottish geologist James Hutton (Mader). Science in succeeding centuries has established the age of the Earth as between four and five billion years, with an exceedingly long history of change and development (Unknown).

There has been solid evidence that living humans form one single species known as homo sapiens (Frolich). Homo sapiens have the ability to interbreed, they have a little anatomical difference among populations, and little biochemical difference among populations (Frolich). They also have DNA and protein analysis that show recent single common ancestors within 1 million years.

http://www.scienceclarified.com/images/uesc_06_img0297.jpg

Natural selection:

Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are inherited, become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms (Mader). This also shows that unfavorable traits that are inherited become less common (Mader). Natural selection is basically the “phenotype”, or the characteristic that can be seen (Mader). In natural selection, people with the “phenotype” characteristic are said to be more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes. If these phenotypes have a genetic basis, then the genotype associated with the favorable phenotype will increase in frequency in the next generation (Mader).
http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/NR/rdonlyres/709C2B0A-DCBF-4A58-BD6A-C97BFF472375/0/conversion.gif
Over a long period of time, this process can result in adaptations that specialize organisms for particular ecological niches, which may eventually result in the emergence of new species (Mader). The term natural selection was introduced by Charles Darwin in 1859 (Unknown). Surprisingly, the concept of natural selection was originally developed in the absence of a valid theory of inheritance, and Darwin’s writing had nothing to do with modern genetics (Unknown).

Human Ecology:

Human ecology is basically that academic discipline that deals with the relationship between humans and their natural, social and created environments (Unknown). Human ecology investigates how humans and human societies interact with nature and with their environment (Unknown). When it comes to human ecology and the environment, species that live in communities are what humans interact with everyday (Unknown). Biologically, the human ecosystem has the same components known as biophysical resources (Frolich).
http://www.mdk12.org/instruction/curriculum/hsa/biology/images/ecosystem.gif
The change in ecosystems occurs because of natural processes (Unknown 2). The changes can take years of centuries, working so slowly that they are barely noticed (Unknown 2). They have a systematic pattern generated by community assembly, which follows an orderly progression known as ecological succession, another emergent property of ecosystems (Unknown 2). These ecosystems are able to change themselves, and people also change ecosystems. Because humans impact the ecosystem, and the ecosystem impacts humans, they depend on each other for survival.

Domestication:

Domestication refers to the process of taming a population of animals, plants or other species as a whole (Mader). Humans have brought these different populations under their care for many different reasons (Mader). Some of the reasons include to produce food, or valuable commodities such as wool, cotton, or silk (Mader). Other reasons are to use them for various types of work, transportation, or to enjoy as pets or ornamental plants (Mader).

http://www.dogfacts.org/dog-pictures.jpg
Plants are mainly domesticated for aesthetic enjoyment in and around the home are usually called house plants (Mader). Some plants are also domesticated for large-scale food production, generally known as crops (Mader). Also, domesticated animals are used for home companionship, known as pets, while animals domesticated for food or work are called livestock or farm animals (Mader).
http://files.turbosquid.com/Preview/Content_on_3_13_2003_05_10_27/Plant.jpg0E3A553F-8168-49C3-B5FE1C6CF6270646.jpgLarge.jpg

Although the thought of domestication is pretty clear, there is a debate within the scientific community over how the process of domestication works (Mader). Some researchers give credit to natural selection, where mutations outside of human control make some members of a species more compatible to human cultivation or companionship (Mader). Other researchers have shown that carefully controlled selective breeding is responsible for many of the collective changes associated with domestication (Mader).

Citations:
Frolich, Larry. “Human Landscape powerpoint” pg.1-5
Mader, Sylvia. “Human Biology 10th edition”. 2008
Unknown. “Human ecology” http://www.ecotippingpoints.com/
Unknown 2 “Ecosystems” http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/earth/ecosystems.html&edu=elem

Compendium Review #1 (Unit IV)

2007-07-26T15:46:00.000-07:00

Reproduction:

Reproduction is formally the biological process where individual organisms are produced (Mader). Reproduction is a fundamental feature of all life, and each individual exits as the result of reproduction (Mader). There are two main types of reproduction known as sexual and asexual (Mader). An individual organism can reproduce by itself without another organism of that species help (Mader). This type of reproduction is found in bacteria, and most plants (Mader). The division of bacterial cells into two daughter cells is an example of asexual reproduction (Mader). Asexual reproduction is also not limited to single-celled organisms (Mader). The opposite is sexual reproduction, which does require the involvement of two individuals (Mader). Normal human reproduction is a common example of sexual reproduction (Mader).

http://static.howstuffworks.com/gif/human-reproduction-female.gif
Human life cycle:

Different researchers studying human development have different perspectives of how many stages in life there are. The human life cycle is said to be briefly broken down into four main stages known as infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Infancy is the stage of life that is from birth to the age of two (Unknown). This is the age that children learn to use their gross motor skills, such as walking, as well as the time teeth and language develop rapidly (Unknown). This stage is also where you find disproportions of children’s head and body (Unknown).

http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=93125&rendTypeId=4

The next stage is focused on childhood and lasts from two years old to adolescence (Unknown). This is when bones are teeth are growing rapidly, and the time when permanent teeth develop (Unknown). Intellectual skills starts to broaden and become more defined (Unknown).

http://www.thecards.com/images/bigcards/childhood.jpg

The next stage is focused on adolescence, where the body becomes sexually mature (Unknown). Things that can start to occur during the adolescent stage are changes in growth, physically and mentally, and also voice changes for males. Because girls bodies are undergoing puberty (a time where they can become pregnant), they gain extra weight, in order to compensate for having a child (Unknown). This is the time where there are many raging hormones at work, and because the body is undergoing so many changes, it can be a stressful time for teenagers (Unknown).

The last stage for during the human life cycle is adulthood (Unknown). Adulthood is the time when the body slows down the production of all the necessary hormones, and the body is fully grown by this time (Unknown). Life styles changes may occur in adults, such as a decrease in physical activity because of the aging of the body’s joints (Unknown). However, this decrease in physical activity doesn’t have to occur in the adult stages of life, and if children are active and continue to stay healthy throughout their lives, they will age much better than adults that are healthy (Unknown).

Meiosis:

Meiosis, in terms of biology, is the process by which a diploid eukaryotic cell divides in order to generate four haploid cells called gametes (Mader). These gametes are the “sex cells” of the body (Mader). The term meiosis comes from the Greek word meioun, which translates “to make smaller”. This term is used because meiosis is the result in a reduction in chromosomes in the gamete cell (Mader).
http://www.ksu.edu/biology/pob/genetics/meiosis.gif

Meiosis is incredibly important to human beings because is essential for sexual reproduction, and without it, there wouldn’t be sustained life on this earth. Meiosis occurs in all eukaryotes that reproduce sexually, even in less complicated single-celled organisms (Mader). Even though sexual reproduction can occur in all eukaryotes, some have lost the ability to carry out meiosis, and have acquired the ability to reproduce by parthenogenesis (Mader).
During meiosis, the genome of a diploid germ cell, composed of DNA, undergoes DNA replication (Mader). After the DNA is replicated, it is able to be divided, which results in the form of gametes (Mader). Each gamete contains a complete set of chromosomes, or half of the genetic content of the original cell (Mader). This is why two parents genetic content combines to give us offspring that has characteristics of both its genetic donors. The gametes have to fuse together with another gamete of the opposite sex during fertilization, in order to create a new diploid cell, known as a zygote (Mader).
After this fertilization occurs, the division mechanism of meiosis is a reciprocal process to the joining of the two genomes (Mader). The chromosomes of each parent undergo genetic recombination, and each gamete and zygote will have a unique genetic blueprint encoded in its DNA. There are many other features that are unique to meiosis, including pairing and genetic recombination between homologous chromosomes, which means that they share the same origin but have a different function (Mader).
Another thing that occurs during meiosis are several processes including prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase (Mader). In the first stage of prophase, individual chromosomes begin to condense into longs strands within the nucleus (Mader). However, the two sister chromatids are still bond together so tightly that they are indistinguishable from one another (Mader). The next stage during meiosis is metaphase (Mader). During this stage, homologous pairs move together along the phase plate (Mader). The physical basis of the independent assortment of chromosomes is the random orientation of each bivalent along the metaphase plate (Mader). The next stage during meiosis is anaphase (Mader). During this stage the cell elongates in preparation for division down the middle. Also, homologous chromosomes that are closely associated in synapsis exchange segments by crossing over. The last stage during meiosis is telophase (Mader). During this stage, the microtubules that make up the spindle network disappear, and a new nuclear membrane surrounds each haploid set. The chromosomes uncoil back into chromatin. After that, cytokinesis (the pinching of the cell membrane) occurs, which completes the process of creating two daughter cells (Mader).

Fetal development and birth:

In early fetal development, there are three main stages a fetus goes through. These stages include the Germinal Stage, the Embryonic Stage, and the Fetal Stage (Feldman pg 75). The Germinal stage occurs from fertilization to two weeks of age. This is the shortest stage of prenatal development, but important because this is when the placenta is able to be used for nutrients and waste disposal through the umbilical cord (Feldman pg 74). The Embryonic stage occurs two weeks to eight weeks following fertilization (Feldman pg 75). This is the most important stage because the entire development of a child occurs during this stage (Feldman pg 75).

http://www.orwelltoday.com/babyub.jpg

There are three layers that form a different set of structures as a child’s development proceeds (Feldman pg 75). These layers are called the ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm. The ectoderm is where skin, hair, teeth, sense organs, the brain, and spinal cord will develop (Feldman pg 75). The endoderm produces the digestive system, liver, pancreas, and respiratory system (Feldman pg 75). Lastly, the mesoderm is where the muscles, bones, blood, and circulatory system are formed (Feldman pg 75). The last stage in fetal development is the fetal stage. This occurs from eight weeks until birth. Now the child is considered a fetus, and this is where labor comes into play (Feldman pg 75).
During all of these stages genes and chromosomes will be passed down to a child, and different aspects of their life are inherited (Feldman pg 125). Genes are what makes us look, and where different aspects of our behavior come from (Feldman pg 125). Chromosomes also play a very important role, and without even just one of them could cause several problems. For example, Fragile X syndrome occurs when a particular gene is injured on the X chromosome, which results in mild to moderate mental retardation (Feldman pg 56). Down syndrome can also occur when the presence of an extra chromosome is on the 21st pair. Another disorder is Klinefelter’s syndrome. Klinefelter’s syndrome occurs when there is the presence of an extra X chromosome, which accounts for genetic ‘gender’ related abnormalities (Feldman pg 56). These abnormalities occur from receiving the improper number of sex chromosomes (Feldman pg 56). In conclusion, having the correct amount of chromosomes and properly working genes can mean a huge difference in people’s lives.

Citations:

Mader, Sylvia. Human Biology 10th edition. 2008
Feldman, Robert. Development across the life span 4th edition 2006.
Unknown. “Human life cycle” http://***.tqnyc.org/NYC040719/life_cycle.htm

Ethical issues essay #3

2007-07-15T00:04:00.001-07:00

Exercise--is the concept working?

All you have to do is eat healthy and exercise. Sounds like a simple concept, right? Wrong! These things can seem like very simple concepts, but can be very difficult for many people. There are many obstacles that can force someone into an unhealthy, and no time for exercise. School is a very good example. Although most college age students are relatively healthy, this isn’t due to their diet and profound exercise. Our bodies are able to regulate our unhealthy habits while we are young, but can have horrible results in the future. When it comes to exercise, time and energy are important factors in being able to do physical activity. Most people may not have the money to get a gym membership, or a car to get to the gym, or simply just no time or lack of energy due to the many stressful things that overwhelm human life. I don’t know if the concept of exercise is actually working. Seeing that a large percentage of people in our country are overweight, or obese, it is clear that we either don’t have time to exercise and eat right, or people are just to lazy to take care of themselves. Either way it is becoming an increasing problem, and is going to keep negatively effecting our world, until we can find a better alternative. According to the World Heath Organization, they predict that by the year 2050, 75% of all deaths will be caused by overweight related diseases and cancers. This number is outrageous, and something needs to be done in order to save millions of lives. People need to work together to incorporate more exercise programs, starting from grade school and up. Grade school children will be able to incorporate exercise, and continue a healthy lifestyle if they learn right away. The best way to do this is to make physical activity a requirement in the school system. Even in college, stressed out college students could be lacking in their health due to focusing on studies, but if a yoga or pilates class was required, maybe there would be more physically fit people.

Compendium review #2 (Unit III)

2007-07-14T23:34:00.000-07:00

Movement:

In order for humans to move about the world, they first need muscle cells (Suny). Muscle cells are specialized for contractility, and can be classified according to their microscopic appearance (Suny). They can also be sorted into three major categories including smooth muscle, skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle (Suny). Smooth muscle is usually found in tubular organs, where as skeletal muscle is usually attached to bones (Suny). Lastly, cardiac muscle is usually found in the wall of the heart (Suny).

http://www.cytochemistry.net/microanatomy/muscle/smooth1.jpg

The smooth muscle cell is spindle-shaped, and has an elongated nucleus that is in the middle of the cell (Suny). Smooth muscle cells may occur as solitary fibers such as those found in the spleen capsule, or grouped together in bundles known as fascicles (Suny). These fascicles can be isolated, or can be in sheets around tubular organs or vessels (Suny). Blood vessels can also be found between these fascicles (Suny).
There are also the skeletal muscle, that are unlike the smooth muscle cell, and do not have one nucleus, but many nuclei (Suny). This nuclei is also not located in the center of the cell, but rather the periphery of the cell, located just under the sarcolemma (Suny). The fiber of this cell is also filled with parallel myofibrils, which extend the length of the cell (Suny). The cross-banding of the adjacent myofibrils are then aligned with each other so the banding is able to be seen across the whole fiber (Suny).

http://training.seer.cancer.gov/module_anatomy/images/illu_muscle_structure.jpg

Lastly, the cardiac muscle found around the heart, are equally important (Suny). The longitudinal sections of cardiac fibers, make it so the myofibrils can be seen by the branching of the fibers (Suny). Like the smooth muscle, the nuclei is located centrally. Also like the skeletal muscle, there are several nuclei, not just one as in the smooth muscle (Suny).

http://www.besthealth.com/besthealth/bodyguide/reftext/images/100085.jpg

Muscle cells, contraction and calcium:

In order for humans to move and use their limbs for complex activities, we must first look at muscle contraction. Muscle contraction occurs when a muscles cell lengthens or shortens (Mader). The process of locomotion, found in more complex animals, is possible only through the repeated contraction of many muscles at certain times (Mader). Contraction is actually controlled by the central nervous system, which is comprised of mostly the brain and spinal cord (Mader). The brain is what controls voluntary muscles contractions, while the spinal cord controls involuntary reflexes (Mader).

http://www.bodytrends.com/articles/strength/images/musclefail_100x136.jpg

The term contraction actually implies that something is being shortened or reduced in the muscular system, and refers to the generation of force by muscle fibers (Mader). During muscular contraction, a muscle’s length can decrease, increase or remain constant (Mader). There are two main types of contraction of muscles: concentric, and eccentric (Mader). Concentric contraction is a a type of muscle contraction where the muscles shorten while generating force (Mader). During this type of contraction, a muscle is stimulated to contract according to the sliding filament mechanism (Mader). This actually occurs throughout the length of the muscle, which generates force at the musculo-tendinous junction (Mader). This causes the muscle to shorten and change the angle of the joint, making us able to move (Mader). If we used the elbow joint as an example, a concentric contraction of the biceps would cause the arm to bend at the elbow, and the hand to move from the leg close to the shoulder, known as a bicep curl (Mader).
In eccentric contraction, the force opposing the contraction of the muscle is actually greater than the force produced by the muscle (Mader). Instead of working to pull a joint in the direction of the muscle contraction, the muscle slows the movement of a joint, and lengthens while generating force (Mader). Even though this force is generated by the muscle is less than the force opposing contraction, it may still be below the maximal force to muscle the muscle could potentially produce (Mader). Again, using the example of the elbow joint, in relation to the arm, an eccentric contraction of the biceps muscle, the elbow would straighten and a hand would move from the shoulder to thigh (Mader). Muscles are more likely to undergo heavy eccentric loading is it is suffering from greater damage (Mader). In other words, if you do too much exercise, you will exert an overload of strain on your body, which makes your muscles soar and tired (Mader).

Movement across joints:

When it comes to joints, most of them can be considered freely movable joints (Frolich). The joints consist of the joint capsule, articular cartilage, synovial membrane, and synovial (joint) cavity (Mader). There aer also six classification of freely movable joints: ball in-socket, condyloid, gliding, hinge, pivot, and saddle (Mader). These joints are said to be more complex structures than immovable and slightly movable joints (Mader). In these types of joints, the end of the bones are covered with a smooth layer of cartilage, and the whole joint is enclosed in a watertight membrane that contains a small amount of lubricating fluid (Mader). This lubrication is very important, because it allows the joint to work with little friction (Mader).
When it comes to joint movement, there are four main types: gliding, angular, rotation, and circumduction. Gliding is the simplest of these motions, and moves without using any rotary or angular motion (Mader). This motion only exists between two adjacent surfaces (Mader). The next type if angular motion (Mader). Angular motion decreases or increases the angle between two adjoining bones (Mader). The most common types of angular motion are flexion, bending arm or leg, extension, straightening or unbending, abduction, and moving an extremity toward the body (Mader). The next type of joint movement is rotation (Mader). Rotation is a movement in which the bone moves around a central point without being displaces, such as turning your head from side to side (Mader).

http://www.eorthopod.com/images/ContentImages/elbow/elbow_arthroplasty/elbow_arthro_anatomy01.jpg

Bones, bone tissue, and calcium:

Bone tissue, also known as osseous tissue, is the major structural and supportive connective tissue of the body (Mader). Osseous tissue forms in the rigid part of the bone organs which make up the skeletal system (Mader). This type of bone tissue is a mineralized connective tissue (Mader). Bone-forming cells called osteoblasts deposit a matrix of collagen, but also release calcium, magnesium, and phosphate ions (Mader). All of these things chemically combine and harden within the matrix (Mader). This combination of hard mineral and flexible collagen makes bone harder than cartilage without being brittle (Mader).
There are two main types of osseous tisse: compact, and spongy (Mader). Compact bone forms the extremely hard exterior while spongy bonds fills the hollow interior (Mader). The tissues are biologically identical, and the difference is in how the microstructure is arranged (Mader).
Osseous tissue is important is performing numerous functions such as support for muscles, organs, and soft tissues (Mader). This tissue is also used for leverage and movement, and used to protect vital organs such as the heart (Mader). Osseous tissue is also important for calcium phosphate storage (Mader).

http://www.unm.edu/~jimmy/long_bone.jpg

Bones are different than bone tissue (Mader). Bones are organs that are made up of bone tissue, as well as marrow, blood vessels, epithelium, and nerves (Mader). Bone tissues is only the mineral matrix that form the rigid sections of the organ (Mader).

Citations:
Frolich, Larry. “Nervous Function Powerpoint” pg. 3-7
Mader, Robert. “Human Biology 10th ed”. 2008.

Suny Downstate Medical Center. “Muscle” http://ect.downstate.edu/courseware/histomanual/muscle.html

Compendium review #1 (Unit III)

2007-07-14T21:52:00.000-07:00

Neurons:

There are two main types of neurons in the body (Mader).
These include motor and sensory neurons (Mader). Motor neurons are located in the Central Nervous System of the body, and either directly or indirectly control muscles. When this occurs, their axons are actually projected outside the central nervous system. This type of neuron is responsible for many types of muscle control, which involves movement of all limbs (Mader). Each motor neuron is also responsible for many organs as well as muscles (Mader).

http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=72120&rendTypeId=35
Sensory neurons are just as important as motor neurons. Sensory neurons are nerve cells that are located in the nervous system. These neurons are responsible for converting external stimuli from an organism’s environment into an internal electrical motor reflex (Frolich). This reflex loops, and makes several forms of involuntary behavior form, including pain avoidance (Mader). These neurons can be found in animals, but in most humans these reflex circuits are usually found in the spinal cord (Mader). In complex organisms, sensory neurons relay their information to the central nervous system (Mader). In less complex organisms, sensory neurons transmit information to the brain where it can be further processed (Mader). When it comes to olfactory sensory neurons (neurons involved in smell), these neurons make synapses with neurons of the olfactory bulb, and the sense of smell is processed (Mader).
http://www.mind.ilstu.edu/curriculum/neurons_intro/imgs/neuron_types.gif
Molecularly, sensory receptors can be found on the cell membrane of sensory neurons (Mader). These neurons are responsible for the conversion of stimuli into important electrical impulses (Mader). The type of receptor employed by a given sensory neuron is what determines the type of stimuli that it will be sensitive to (Mader). Going back to the sensory receptors for smell, the olfactory receptors make a cell sensitive to odors, and make it so humans can have this sense (Mader).
http://www.nature.com/embor/journal/v3/n4/images/embor178-f2.jpg
Nervous system function:
The nervous system is extremely important in all living things, and is the major controlling, regulatory, and communicating system in the body (Unknown). It is also the center of all mental activity (Unknown). These activities include everything from thought, to learning and memory (Unknown). The nervous system, combined with the endocrine system are responsible for regulating and maintaining the body’s much needed homeostasis, in order to keep it regular (Unknown). The nervous system is also to keep us in touch with our environment, externally and internally by the action of its receptors (Unknown). The nervous system is similar to that of other systems in the body, because it is composed of organs (Unknown). The main parts that make up the nervous system are the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and the ganglia (Unknown). This system also includes various tissues, including nerve, connective, and blood tissue (Unknown). All of these organs and tissues together carry out the complex activities of the nervous system.
http://www.ama-assn.org/ama1/pub/upload/images/446/nervousatlasgroups.gif
The nervous system can be generalized into three categories of activity (Unknown) . These categories include sensory, integrative, and motor (Unknown). Along with these categories, come millions of sensory receptors that detect changes inside and outside of the body, known as stimuli. They receptors watch for things such as temperature, light, and sound from our environment (Unknown) . They also detect things in the internal environment such as variations in pressure, pH, and carbon dioxide concentration (Unknown). All of this information together is known as sensory input (Unknown). This type of input is converted into electrical signals, known as nerve impulses, and are transmitted to the brain. These impulses create signals that are brought together in order to create sensations or produce thought (Unknown).

Diffusion and Action:
The electrical discharge that travels along the membrane of a cell occurs because of action potential (Mader). Action potentials are essential, especially in human and animal life, because they rapidly carry information with and between tissues (Mader). Action potentials can be created by many types of cells, but are commonly used by the nervous system for communication between neurons (Mader). Action potentials can also transmit information from neurons to other body tissues such as muscles and glands (Mader). This is extremely important in make our body function as a whole, and make parts of our body move, and understand our internal world (Mader).
http://www.getbodysmart.com/ap/nervoussystem/neurophysiology/actionpotentials/menu/image.gif
Although action potentials can be in different cells of animals, some plants, and humans, they are not the same in all cell types (Frolich). Action potential can even vary in their properties at different locations, even if they are in the same cell (Frolich). Cardiac action potentials are an example of this, and are significantly different from the action potentials in most neurons (Frolich). Action potentials are so important to human life, because they give us many different abilities we use in everyday life. For example, action potentials give us the ability to sense our environment, and process informaion rapidly and respond to the rapid transmission of messages within the body (Frolich). Action potentials are also responsible for transmitting messages that are unique to animals (Frolich).
Reflex arc:
A reflex arc is known as the neural pathway which mediates a reflex action (Mader). This means that in more complex animals, most of the sensory neurons don’t pass directly into the brain, but through a synapse in the spinal cord (Mader). A reflex action is able to occur because of this characteristic, which occurs relatively quickly, and activates the spinal motor neurons (Mader). This process is able to go faster because there is no delay of routing signals through the brain, although the brain will receive sensory input while the reflex action occurs (Mader).
http://www.merck.com/media/mmhe2/figures/fg077_1.gif
There is also a somatic reflex arc (Unknown 2). This is the simplest possible arrangement of elements to permit a response to stimuli, and the final element in the chain is skeletal muscle (Unknown 2). This system includes sensory transducers in the periphery, such as Pacinian corpuscles and other tactile sensors in the skin (Unknown 2). Also included in this system is the pseudounipolar sensory neuron, interconnector neurons, and the effector organ (Uknown 2).
http://education.vetmed.vt.edu/Curriculum/VM8054/Labs/Lab9/IMAGES/DRAW05.JPG
What can we sense?:
All over our bodies we have sensory receptors that enable us to respond to stimulus from our body internally, or externally through our environment (Frolich). These receptor cells also trigger action potential in connecting sensory neurons (Frolich). Even though we have these receptors all over our body, the majority are in the spinal cord and brain, and are responsible for interpreting and analyzing information (Frolich). They are able to analyze the questions, where, what, how much, and how strong (Frolich).
All of these examples are unconscious processes that all normal bodies undergo (Frolich). Although this is true, there are somatic sensory perceptions that are conscious (Frolich). These perceptions occur in large fields of the brain, and are responsible for organizing information spatially (Frolich). In perceptions that are visual, the visual cortex is responsible for forming a visual field, or complete visual image for humans to see (Frolich).
Sensory cortex maps for touching sensations all over the surface of our skin are also very important (Frolich). If we didn’t have cutaneous receptors on our skin, we wouldn’t be able to touch, feel pressure, tell the difference between hot and cold objects, or feel pain (Frolich). Ultimately these receptors are responsible for making humans feel alive.
http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/i/i_06/i_06_cr/i_06_cr_mou/i_06_cr_mou_1b.jpg
Many people also forget that we have many more than just five senses. We have other senses that are not as obvious, such as the sense of proprioception (Frolich). This is what gives our body position by sensing muscle tension (Frolich). Without this, we wouldn’t be able to tell if our bodies are sitting, or standing (Frolich). Another important sense that we don’t think about it, is equilibrium (Frolich). This is probably the most important of our senses, and gives us the able to stand up straight, and have balance (Frolich). Without this quality, we wouldn’t be able to move any parts of our body without falling, and would never be able to do virtually nothing (Frolich).
http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=14304&rendTypeId=4

Citations:
Frolich, Larry. “Nervous Function Powerpoint” pg. 3-7
Mader, Robert. “Human Biology 10th ed”. 2008.
Unknown “Functions of the nervous system”. 2007. http://training.seer.cancer.gov/module_anatomy/unit5_1_nerve_functions.html
Unknown 2 “Somatic reflex arc”. 2007. http://education.vetmed.vt.edu/Curriculum/VM8054/Labs/Lab9/Examples/exsomarc.htm

Online Activity #2 (Unit III)

2007-07-14T17:21:00.001-07:00

Figure 1: Effect of Temperature on Muscle Action

Temperature
Number of Fists
Normal
---------------35
Ice Water
---------------16

Effect of Fatigue on Muscle Action

1. Count how many times you can tightly squeeze a rubber ball in your hand
in 20 seconds. Record in Figure 2.

2. Repeat the squeezing nine more times and record results. Do not rest
between trials.

(An alternative procedure which works well is to open and close a
clothespin with the thumb and index finger while the other fingers are held
out straight.)

Figure 2: Effect of Fatigue on muscle action

Trial
# of Squeezes in 20 seconds
9 More X's
1
15
10
2
14
10
3
14
10
4
13
8
5
14
8
6
11
8
7
12
9
8
12
7
9
13
8
10
12
6

ANALYSIS OF DATA:

1. What are the three changes you observed in a muscle while it is working (contracted)?
The muscle became harder to move, it became really hard to make a fist time after time, and also slowed reaction time.

2. What effect did the cold temperature have on the action of your hand muscles? Explain.
It made the muscles contract slower, and make my hand close slower, and not be able to close as tight.

3. In Figure 3, make a line graph of your results of the fatigue experiment. Be sure to fill in the values on the vertical axis.

Figure 3: Graph of Effect of Fatigue on Muscle Action

Attempts Number
4. What effect did fatigue have on the action of your hand muscles? Explain.

Fatigue had a huge effect on my hand muscles because it made my reaction time slower, and obviously tired out the muscles, which make the ability of making a fist much slower and harder.

Online activity #1 (Unit III)

2007-07-14T16:09:00.000-07:00

1. What is the electrode measuring?

In this experiment, we used a microelectrode. Electrodes record the activity of neurons in the leech.
2. Why use leeches in neurophysiology experiments?

Although leeches are basic, they give us a good idea of how more complex organisms work. Also, many people don’t have an emotional attachment to leeches, and don’t really mind if they are operated on. 3. What is the difference between a sensory and a motor neuron?

Sensory neurons are nerve cells within in the nervous system that are responsible for converting external stimuli from an organism’s environment. In humans, these are usually located in the spinal cord. Motor neurons are located in the central nervous system, and project their axons outside this system in order to control muscles.
4. Do you think a leech experiences pain? What is pain?

Pain is defined as an unpleasant sensation. I believe that although leeches are simple creatures, they can experience pain, just like most other organisms. I also think that they can experience pain because at the beginning of the experience, we had to put anesthesia in the leech. 5. What were the two most interesting things about doing this lab?

I thought that it was interesting when the dye went into the leech, and you could see everything internally and fluorescent. It was also interesting being able to use all the different tools in order to examine the leech.6. Anything you found confusing or didn't like about the lab?

I don’t like that I can’t even copy the pictures in the labs, but other than that the labs are fine.

Picture descriptions (because I can’t copy the pictures):

The ultraviolet image of the neuron with dye in it showing is has the shape of a sensory neuron. After the leech is cut open, and the dye is injected, and the UV switch is turned on, the outside shape is a green florescent diamond. There are two thin lines that come down from the top, and another line from the middle crossing the top lines. Off of the bottom lines are many more smaller lines, which are the axon and dendrites. In the right hand corner, you can see a bright circle, which is highlighting the neuron.

Now in the oscillope trace readings, I was able to identify a cell by using the probe. I identified that the “P cell” was the correct type in this experiment.

Unit III Lab Project

2007-07-12T16:17:00.000-07:00

Introduction:

This model represents a movable, flexible limb. This model also shows the elbow joint, and how it makes the arm move. Neurons and muscle cells are also depicted in this model, as well as their specific function in the arm. The essential elements presented in this model include neurons carrying action potentials that trigger muscle (neurotransmitter), actin-myosin sliding filaments, a bony element that muscle attaches to and moves, and a joint that allows for movement.
The neurons presented in this model include axon with schwann cells, movements of charged sodium and potassium ions across the membrane (action potential), and the propagation of action potential along the axon. There are also several aspects of the muscle cells included in this model, such as sarcolemma and T-tubule membranes, a sarcomere, the release of calcium from the Sarcoplasmic reticulum, calcium binding to myosin, and myosin cross-bridges that bring actin filaments together. All of these things put together make a simple limb movement.
Elbow joint – This joint is considered a hinge joint in the body, in which this joint only moves in one direction. This joint is also formed by three bones; the humerus, radius, and ulna and allows the arm to move.
Neurotransmitters – These chemicals are used in order to amplify and relay electrical signals between a neuron and another cell. Within the cell, small neurotransmitter molecules are usually found in vesicles. When action potential occurs, and travels to the synapse, depolarization causes the calcium ion channels to open, which leads to the process of exocytosis.
Actin-myosin sliding filaments – These filaments are responsible for many types of movement in the muscle. Myosin is the prototype of a protein that converts chemical energy in the form of ATP to mechanical energy, in order to create enough force to make the arm move.
Bony element that muscle attaches to – The two ends of the muscle belly are attached to a bone by a muscle tendon. The bone that remains stable during movement is known as the origin, and the bone that moves when the muscle belly contracts in known as insertion. A muscle can make an arm move when insertion occurs, and moves toward the origin, as the muscle belly shortens.
Axon with Schwann cells – Schwann cells speed up and save energy for the processes of action potentials. This variety of neuroglia mainly provides myelin insulation to axons in the peripheral nervous system of our bodies.
Action potential – This process of electrical discharge is very important in order to carry information within and between tissues. This charge travels along the membrane of a cell, and essential in animal and some plant life.
Propagation of action potential – Propagation is the interaction between membrane depolarization and sodium channels. Action potential will propagate in unmyelinated axons, and let sodium ions enter the cell by facilitated diffusion.
Sarcolemma – This is the cell membrane of a muscle cell which receives and conducts stimuli. This membrane is extendable, and encloses different substances from muscle fiber.
Sarcomere – This is the basic unit of a muscle’s myofibril. Sarcomeres are multi-protein complexes which are composed of three different filament systems. The different bands in the sarcomeres allow muscle contraction to occur, and expand and contract in order make the muscle move.
Release of Calcium – This process is important because it lets ATP hydrolysis occur, which supplies energy in the actin-myosin complex. When the action potential triggers a myocyte to contract, calcium ions are able to enter. This calcium actually triggers the release of more calcium ions that are stored in the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
Calcium binding to myosin – This calcium is then able to bind to myosin, after the energy is supplied in the actin-myosin complex. This is needed in order to trigger a contraction of the muscle.
Myosin cross-bridges – During this cycle, actin combines with myosin, and ATP is used to produce force. This ATP first disconnects the actin from the myosin, and is then hydrolyzed by the myosin in order to produce the energy needed for muscle contraction.

List of limb parts & their representations:
* Elbow joint – Represented by pizza tongs
* Neurons carrying action potentials that trigger muscle – Represented by beef
* Actin-myosin sliding filaments – Represented by the colored lines in straws.
* Bony element – Represented by Styrofoam boxes
* Axon with Schwann cells – Represented by sour punch straws, pixie sticks, and mini back scratchers
* Action potential – Represented by single sour punch straws
* Propagated action potential – Represented by sweet tarts on the sour punch straws, pixie sticks, and mini back scratchers.
* Sarcolemma – Represented by a group of straws and rubber bands
* Sarcomere – Represented by a single straw coming out of a straw bundle
* Calcium binding to myosin – Represented by an M&M attached to single straw
* Myosin crossing bridges – Represented by jelly bracelets and a beaded bracelet
* Muscle belly split into various components – Represented by a bundle of straws, with single straws coming out of the bundle in various colors.
*Muscle – Represented by pepperoni slices

The model itself:

I know someone who works at a pizza place, and I was able to use these ingredients to make dough. I made half a batch with 1 ½ cups of oil, ½ cup of salt, 25 lbs of water, 50 lbs of flour, and 4 oz of yeast.

The mixer used to blend all the ingredients

This was the scale used to measure the ingredients

This is the dough when it is finished, and wrapped around a stack of lids in order to make the shape of an arm.

This dough represents the arm and elbow joint, (even though this one is large), and simulates a real arm.

This picture shows the neurons that carry action potentials that trigger muscle, that are found in the elbow joint.

This is a picture of the sarcolemma and its bands

This is a picture of the bone cut from Styrofoam boxes

This is a picture of the axon with schwann cells

This is a picture of the process of action potential, and its propagation represented by sweet tarts.

This is a picture of a single sarcomere

This is a picture of calcium binding to myosin

This is a picture of the muscle belly split into various components

This is a picture of the myosin cross-bridges

This is a picture of the bone being inserted into the dough arm

It took one day for the dough to harden, but it also needed to be stuffed in order to keep its shape.

Here is the elbow joint being inserted into the arm, in order to make it flexible and able to move.

Here is the finished arm. A rubber band is at the bottom of the elbow joint (pizza tongs), make it so the arm can contract and be flexible.

Here is the finished arm contracting, as you can see the muscle inside the arm

Conclusion:
This model was time consuming, and extremely difficult in showing all the parts of a muscle together inside the arm. I had to do all of the pieces separately, but it all came together and the arm could contract, and was flexible. This lab project was a very interesting experience, and a creative way in learning about the muscle contraction process.

Self and Unit evaluation

2007-06-30T23:22:00.001-07:00

1. What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of?
Again, I am most proud of my 2 compendium reviews, and my lab project because they are the most time consuming. I really enjoy seeing the results after working so hard on them.
2. What two aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement?
I probably could have improved my ethical issues essay, and put in more viewpoints on the issue. I also could have been more extensive with my nutrition lab.
3. What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit?
I believe that this unit went a lot smoother than the last one, and I did pretty well on most of the projects, and didn’t have a problem posting the entire lab, like in the last one…so, I would have to say I am hoping for an A, and believe that in this unit I deserve it.
4. How could I perform better in the next unit?
In my next unit, I need to present more viewpoints on my ethical issues essay. I’ve been tending to just keep it at one or two point of views.
At what moment during this unit did you feel most engaged with the course?
I really enjoyed the section about the circulatory system. It was interesting to learn exactly which organs do which jobs that work together to make us complex human beings.
At what moment unit did you feel most distanced from the course?
I didn’t enjoy all the activities with blood pressure as much as the nutrition activity, and the nutrition compendium review.
What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit that find most affirming and helpful?
I believe that any answered questions from the professor help me through the unit.
What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit did you find most puzzling or confusing?
I thought that this unit was much more straight forward than the last, and I didn’t really feel any confusing during this unit.
What about this unit surprised you the most? (This could be something about your own reactions to the course, something that someone did, or anything else that occurs to you.)
What surprised me most about this unit is how much information I have retained from it. When I hear something on TV, such as a commercial for a medication reducing heart disease, I instantly think of what I have learned from this unit.

Unit II Lab Project

2007-06-30T22:44:00.000-07:00

Introduction:

This lab focuses on three basic metabolic measures: pulse, respiration rate, and blood pressure. Metabolic refers to the complete set of chemical reactions that occur in living cells, allow cells to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. The term pulse refers to the throbbing of the arteries that make a heart beat. A pulse can be taken from the neck, known as the carotid artery, the wrist, known as the radial artery, behind the knee, known as the popliteal artery, and on the inside of the elbow, known as the brachial artery. The term respiration rate refers to the number of breaths a person takes per minute.
Lastly, the term blood pressure refers to the force exerted by circulating blood on the walls of blood vessels. This term also usually refers to blood pressure in larger arteries, known as arterial blood pressure. This pressure is what circulates the blood through arteries, arterioles, capillaries, and veins. Systolic blood pressure is the peak pressure in the arteries, which occurs near the beginning of the cardiac cycle. Diastolic pressure is the lowest pressure at the resting phase of the cardiac cycle.

Hypothesis:
I hypothesized that the “at-rest” metabolic rate will be lower than all the metabolic rates after activity. The three activities I chose was jogging on a treadmill, doing sit-ups on a weight bench, and lifting 10 lb weights. I hypothesized that jogging on a treadmill would give me the highest metabolic measurements, following lifting weights, then lastly doing sit-ups.

PULSE
RESPIRATION RATE
BP SYTOLIC
BP DIASTOLIC
ACTIVITY ONE:
* Jogging

110 bpm
75
120
80
ACTIVITY TWO:
* Lifting weights

100 bpm
60
110
78
ACTIVITY THREE:
* Sit-ups

95 bpm
55
100
75
AT REST:
* Laying in chair

80 bpm
40
115
75

Materials and Methods:

This is where I did my “at-rest” metabolic rates

After I did sit-ups, I then recorded my metabolic rates.

After jogging on the treadmill, I then recorded my metabolic rates.

After lifting weights, I then recorded my metabolic rates.

This is the blood pressure machine I used, located in the Wal-Mart Pharmacy

Blood pressure machine in Wal-Mart

This is me getting my blood pressure results

Chart #1 of raw data:

PULSE
RESPIRATION RATE
BP SYTOLIC
BP DIASTOLIC
ACTIVITY ONE:
* Jogging

116
72
121
78
ACTIVITY TWO:
* Lifting weights

95
64
119
77
ACTIVITY THREE:
* Sit-ups
92
59
117

74

AT REST:
* Laying in chair

74
37
114
70

Chart #2 of raw data:

PULSE
RESPIRATION RATE
BP SYTOLIC
BP DIASTOLIC
ACTIVITY ONE:
* Jogging

112
68
119
76
ACTIVITY TWO:
* Lifting weights

91
61
116
74
ACTIVITY THREE:
* Sit-ups
89
56
115

71

AT REST:
* Laying in chair

71
34
113
67

Chart #3 of raw data:

PULSE
RESPIRATION RATE
BP SYTOLIC
BP DIASTOLIC
ACTIVITY ONE:
* Jogging

111
67
116
75
ACTIVITY TWO:
* Lifting weights

90
59
115
72
ACTIVITY THREE:
* Sit-ups
87
55
111

70

AT REST:
* Laying in chair

70
32
112
64

Chart #1 of mean data:

PULSE
RESPIRATION RATE
BP SYTOLIC
BP DIASTOLIC
ACTIVITY ONE:
* Jogging

113
69
118.67
76.33
ACTIVITY TWO:
* Lifting weights

92
61.33
116.67
74.33
ACTIVITY THREE:
* Sit-ups
89.33
56.67
114.33

71.67
AT REST:
* Laying in chair

71.67
34.33
113
67

Analysis of my data:
Series 1 : Pulse ; Series 2 : Respiration rate ; Series 3 : Systolic blood pressure ; Series 4 : Diastolic blood pressure.
Series 1 : Pulse ; Series 2 : Respiration rate ; Series 3 : Systolic blood pressure ; Series 4 : Diastolic blood pressure.
My hypothesis was correct about the “at-rest” metabolic rate will be lower than all the metabolic rates after activity. I was also correct in hypothesizing that jogging on a treadmill would give me the highest metabolic measurements, following lifting weights, and lastly doing sit-ups.

Problems with data or technique:
One of the problems that could have occurred when recording my data, was doing all the trials one right after the other. This could have changed my pulse, and make it decrease because my body could be used to the activity after three times of doing it, and not have to work as hard.
Conclusion:
According to the data I found, harder activities such as running or jogging can increase your pulse and respiration rate, which can increase the strength of your heart, and make you at less risk for cardiovascular disease. Also according to the data I found, stationary activities such as sitting in a chair may be relaxing, but don’t challenge your body or keep it active, which keeps your immune system healthy, as well as prevents diseases and illnesses.

Ethical Issues Essay #1 (Unit II)

2007-06-26T22:13:00.000-07:00

Title: “Obesity: Fast food restaurant’s fault, or consumers?”

Most people become obese because of the types of food they choose to consume, or do they? Fast food restaurants such as McDonald’s and Burger King are extremely accessible to millions of Americans. When the majority of Americans have demanding job schedules, along with other responsibilities, such as raising children, it can be hard to find fast food that is healthy. People ultimately have to choose to eat what fits into their schedule, such as fast food burgers and fries, or not eat until they are able to cook a healthy meal. This fast food frenzy has made millions of Americans suffer from illnesses like obesity, which can lead to cardiovascular disease, along with other life-threatening illnesses.
Along with time constraints, another thing consumers can’t avoid is the fast food portion control. The size of a large fry and soda for example have constantly increased, insisting people will get more food for their money. Although this slogan may sound good, the only thing most Americans are getting are many illnesses due to the high-fat ingredients which they serve their meals with. Yes, you will get more food for you money, but doesn’t a doctor’s visit for high cholesterol and heart attacks out-weight that benefit? If fast food chains could work together on not only making their meals quick and accessible, but also providing healthier ingredients in their products, this could help out millions of Americans. Adding healthier ingredients at a bit higher cost would significantly minimize greater costs in the future.

Nutrition lab

2007-06-26T21:57:00.001-07:00

This is just a reminder that I sent you my nutrition lab by e-mail.

Blood pressure lab

2007-06-26T21:55:00.000-07:00

Q #1 :State a problem about the relationship of age and gender to blood pressure.

A #1: One problem is that everyone is different, and it may not be sufficient enough to just compare age and gender to blood pressure.

Q #2 :Use your knowledge about the heart and the circulatory system to make a hypothesis about how the average blood pressure for a group of people would be affected by manipulating the age and gender of the group members.

A #2 : First of all the heart is usually stronger in more active adults. Being active usually occurs more in young adults, because they have more time and energy to do activities. This would then make the age of an adult important because in healthy adults, the younger you are, the better your blood pressure will be. When it comes to gender, males may tend to be more active, especially in competitive sports as young adults. On the other hand, females may eat healthier, and activity or health can bring a better blood pressure.

Q # 3: How will you use the investigation screen to test your hypothesis? What steps will you follow? What data will you record?

A # 3 : By using the investigation screen I can test my hypothesis, that women will have a better blood pressure than men based on healthier eating habits. I will first compare the women, and then change the screen to the men, and record their systolic and diastolic blood pressures.

Table:

Age Male systolic Male diastolic Female systolic Female diastolic
11-17 118 77 117 77
18-24 130 81 117 75
25-34 131 81 117 77
35-44 129 81 122 78
45-54 134 85 127 76

Q #4: Analyze the result of your experiment. Explain any patterns you observed.

A # 4: Just as I hypothesized, women had a lower blood pressure on average than men. The pattern in the male diastolic pressure stayed about the same from age 18-44. The pattern in female systolic stayed the same from age 11-34.

Q #5 : Did the result of your experiment support your hypothesis? Why or why not? Based on your experiment what conclusion can you draw about the relationship of age and gender to group blood pressure averages?

A #5 : Yes, my hypothesis that females on average would have lower blood pressures than males, and that as females age they would have lower blood pressures was supported in this experiment. Based on this experiment we could assume that young females will, on average, have a lower blood pressure than young males, and older females, on average, will have a lower blood pressure than older males.

Q # 6 : During the course of your experiment, did you obtain any blood pressure reading that were outside of the normal range for the group being tested? What did you notice on the medical charts for these individuals that might explain their high reading?

A # 6 : When there was an abstract blood pressure reading, most of the time the individual had either a family history of hypertension or a high-salt diet. These things could directly explain high blood pressure for some individuals. Others had lack or exercise and alcohol consumption, but they didn't affect the scores quite as much as a history of hypertension.

Q # 7 : List risk factors associated with the hypertension. Based on your observation, which risk factor do you think is most closely associated with hypertension?

A # 7 : Some of the risk factors for hypertension are a high-salt diet, lack or exercise, and alcohol consumption. All these things can lead to hypertension. I think that a high-salt diet is probably one the most closely associated with hypertension.

Q # 8 : What effect might obesity have on blood pressure? Does obesity alone cause a person to be at risk for high blood pressure? What other factors, in combination with obesity, might increase a person's risk for high blood pressure?

A #8: Obesity can have a huge effect on blood pressure. First of all, a person's heart who is obese is working twice as hard to circulate blood throughout their system. This alone can cause a person to be at a high risk for high blood pressure. Because obesity causes a string of others diseases and problems such as cardiovascular disease, any of these problems due to obesity can make a person's high blood pressure risk increase.

Compendium review #2 (Unit II)

2007-06-26T11:40:00.000-07:00

Glucose, diffusion and diabetes:

In order to get nutrients to cells, cells must obtain and use glucose (Frolich pg.1). As discussed in the previous topic, our cells need oxygen for cell respiration in order to make ATP, which is used to power all the reactions of a cell’s metabolism (Frolich pg.1). Therefore, glucose is the product that gets burned or combined with oxygen in the cellular respiration process (Frolich pg.1). The main processes that make ATP with glucose as a principle reactant are glycolysis and the Kreb’s cycle (Frolich pg.1).
First, glucose diffuses through a special protein pore on the cell membrane (Frolich pg.1). After this process, insulin is the protein which is secreted by the pancreas into the blood (Frolich pg.1). This process usually occurs after eating a meal (Frolich pg.1). Insulin is responsible for stimulating the cells in order for them to take up glucose and store it as glycogen, or use it in cellular metabolism (Frolich pg.1).
Glycolysis is considered the metabolic pathway by which a 6-carbon glucose molecule is oxidized by two molecules of pyruvic acid (Mader). This process allows the generation of high-energy molecules such as ATP used as cellular energy (Mader). This energy acts as sources for anaerobic and aerobic respiration (Mader).

The Kreb’s cycle, also known as the citric acid cycle, is very important in all living cells (Mader). This cycle is a series of enzyme-catalysed chemical reactions that use oxygen as part of cellular respiration (Mader). In aerobic organisms, the Kreb’s cycle is part of a metabolic pathway involved in the chemical conversion of carbs, fats, and proteins into carbon dioxide and water (Mader). These conversions result in usable energy for a cell (Mader). The citric acid cycle also provides precursors for many compounds, and some of its reactions are needed even in cells performing fermentation (Mader).

Every human body needs more than just sugar in order to live (Frolich pg.1). Though our body produces many things that make our body run smoothly, one thing that it doesn’t produce is essential amino acids (Frolich pg.1). These essential amino acids are needed in order to make proteins in our body (Frolich pg.1). Essential amino acids can come from different food sources, vitamins or minerals (Frolich pg.1). In fact humans can only produce half (10 out of 20) of essential amino acids (University). Failure to obtain enough of even 1 of the 10 essential amino acids can result in degradation of the body’s proteins and muscles (University). This is so important because, unlike fat and starch, the human body can’t store an excess of amino acids for later use, and must be in the food we eat every day (University). The 10 amino acids that we can’t produce are arginine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine (University).

Diabetes is a metabolic disorder that is characterized by hyperglycemia (Mader). Hyperglycemia is high blood sugar, and is just one of the signs of diabetes (Mader). The World Health Organization recognizes three main form of diabetes (World). These types include Type 1, Type 2, and gestational diabetes, which occurs only during pregnancy (World). All forms of diabetes are due to the beta cells of the pancreas being unable to produce a sufficient amount of insulin in order to prevent hyperglycemia (World).
Type 1 diabetes usually occurs because of the autoimmune destruction of the pancreas beta cells that produce insulin (World). Type 2 is characterized by tissue-wide insulin resistance, and can sometimes progress because of the loss of beta cell function (World). Similar to Type 2 diabetes, gestational diabetes occurs when the hormones of pregnancy cause insulin resistance in women who are genetically predisposed to developing this condition (World).
Unfortunately Type 1 and type 2 diabetes are incurable chronic conditions (World). Although this is true there are insulin treatments that became medically available in 1921 (World). Today, these treatments are usually managed with a combination of dietary treatment, tablets, and insulin supplementation (World). Fortunately, gestational diabetes is usually resolved upon delivery of a child (World).

This disorder can also cause many complications, sometimes acute, and others severe (World). Some of the acute complications include hypoglycemia, ketoacidosis, and nonketotic hyperosmolar coma (World). Some of the long-term complications include cardiovascular disease, which diabetics are twice as like to get, retinal damage that can lead to blindness, and chronic renal failure (World). Other complications include nerve damage, erectile dysfunction, micro-vascular damage, and poor healing of wounds (World).

Digestion:

Digestion is simply the process of metabolism whereby a biological entity processes a substance chemically and mechanically converts a substance for the body to use (Mader). During this process nutrients enter the body in the form of food (Frolich pg.2). These nutrients diffuse across the wall of your gut and into the blood, and travel through the bloodstream, and eventually diffuse into the cells (Frolich pg.2).

The digestive system includes a series of hollow organs that lead from the mouth to the anus (National). In the inside of the mouth, stomach and small intestine is a lining called mucosa (National). Mucosa helps digest food through tiny glands that produce digestive juices (National). The liver and the pancreas are what produce digestive juices that are needed in the intestines (National).
Digestion is especially important because, when we eat food, they aren’t initially in a form that the body can use as nourishment (National). Our food and drinks have to be changed to smaller molecules of nutrients before they can be absorbed into the bloodstream and carried to cells throughout the body (National). The actual process of digestion is when food and drink are broken down into their smallest parts so the body can use them to build and nourish cells and provide energy for the body (National). Digestion involves the mixing of food, its movement through the digestive tract, and the chemical breakdown of large molecules of food into smaller molecules (National). Digestion begins in the mouth, when we chew and swallow, and is completed in the small intestine. The chemical process also slightly varies for different kinds of food (National). The large, hollow organs of the digestive system contain muscle that enables their walls to move. The movement of organ walls can push food and liquid and also mix the contents of each organ.

Movement of the esophagus, stomach, and intestine is called peristalsis (National). The muscle of the organ produces a narrowing and then pushes the narrowed portion slowly down the length of the organ (National). These waves of narrowing push the food and fluid in front of them through each hollow organ (National).
Next, the first major muscle movement occurs when food or liquid is swallowed. Although we are able to start swallowing by choice, once the swallowing process begins, it becomes involuntary and proceeds under the control of the nerves (National). Then the esophagus is the organ into which the swallowed food is pushed (National). At the junction of the esophagus and stomach, there is a ring-like valve closing the passage between the two organs. However, as the food approaches the closed ring, the surrounding muscles relax and allow the food to pass (National).
The food is now able to enter the stomach (National). The stomach is responsible for three mechanical tasks (National). The first task of the stomach includes storage of the swallowed food and liquid (National). This requires that muscle of the upper part of the stomach to relax and accumulate large volumes of swallowed material (National). The next job of the stomach is to mix up the food, liquid and digestive juices into a mixture known as chyme (National). The lower part of the stomach is responsible for mixing these materials by muscle action (National). The third responsibility of the stomach is to empty its contents into the small intestine in order for waste removal (National).

Food is then digested in the small intestine and dissolved into the juices produced by the pancreas, liver and intestine (National). The contents of the intestine are then mixed and pushed forward to allow for further digestion (National). In the last process, all the digested nutrients are absorbed through the intestinal walls (National). The waste products of this process include anything from undigested parts of food (fiber), and older cells that have been shed from the mucosa (National). All of these materials combine and end up in the colon and stay for approximately one or two days before the feces are secreted (National). This entire complicated process is known as digestion.

Nutrition and diet:

Nutrition includes all the good parts we get from the food that we consume (Unicef). Diet is the sum of food consumed by an organism or group (Unicef). Eating the right foods that are nutritious, and maintaining a healthy diet are ways to improve and sustain life. Food is made up of several different types of nutrients that contribute to nutritious food (Unicef). These nutrients include carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals and water (Unicef).
The macronutrients carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are the most important is sustaining life (McKinley). Macronutrients are what provide calories or energy for the body (McKinley). Nutrients are needed for growth, metabolism, and many other body functions (McKinley). The term ‘macro’ means large in which means these nutrients are needed in large amounts (McKinley). Each macronutrient provide a different amount of calories needed for the body (McKinley). Carbohydrates and protein provide 4 calories per gram while fat provides 9 calories per gram (McKinley).
Carbohydrates are the macronutrient that we need in the largest amount (McKinley). According to the Dietary Reference Intake, 45-65% of calories should come from carbohydrates (McKinley). This is the reason why it is so important not to go on low carb diets, because they are so important to many bodily functions (McKinley). Carbohydrates are the body’s main source of fuel, and are easily used by the body for energy (McKinley). All of the tissues and cells in our body can use glucose for energy, and carbohydrates are needed by the central nervous system (McKinley). The kidneys, brain, muscles and the heart all need carbohydrates in order to function properly (McKinley). Carbohydrates can be stored in the muscles as glycogen, or in the liver and later used for energy (McKinley). Carbohydrates are also important in intestinal health and waste elimination (McKinley). Carbohydrates are mainly found in starchy foods such as potatoes or grains, but can also be found in fruits, milk, and yogurt (McKinley). Foods such as veggies, beans, nuts, cottage cheese, and seeds also contain carbohydrates but in smaller amounts (McKinley).

Non-digestible foods are known as fiber. Fiber is a carbohydrate responsible for moving waste through the intestinal tract and out of the body (McKinley). Fiber usually comes from fruits, vegetables, and whole grain products (McKinley). Diets high in fiber have been shown to decrease risks for heart disease, obesity, and can help lower cholesterol (McKinley). Diets low in fiber can cause constipation, hemorrhoids, and an increased risk for colon cancer (McKinley).

Protein is another macronutrient important to survival (McKinley). According to the Dietary Reference Intake, about 10-35% of calories should come from protein (McKinley). Protein is usually found in meats, poultry, fish, cheese, milk, nuts, and legumes (McKinley). Proteins are responsible for growth, tissue repair, immune function, making essential hormones and enzymes, providing energy when carbohydrates are not available and preserving lean muscle mass (McKinley). When we eat foods that contain protein, our body breaks it down into amino acids (McKinley). Protein that come from animal sources contain all the essential amino acids that our body cannot produce, and this is why sometimes it is hard to be a healthy vegetarian (McKinley).

Lastly, some fat is essential for survival (McKinley). Fats normally have a bad reputation for causing weight gain, but are still important in order to live (McKinley). Again, according to the Dietary Reference Intake, 20-35% of calories should come from fat (McKinley). Fat is responsible for normal growth and development (McKinley). Fat is also the most concentrated source of energy (McKinley). Fat is also important in absorbing certain vitamins such as A, D, E and K which provide a different responsibility in the overall function of our body (McKinley). Fat also provides a cushion for organs, maintains cell membranes, and provides taste, consistency and stability to foods (McKinley). Fat is found in many foods such as poultry, meat, nuts, milk products, oils, lard, butter, margarine, fish, salad dressings, and grain products (McKinley). There are also three main types of fat, including saturated, unsaturated, and trans fat (McKinley). Saturated fat is found in foods such as meat, butter, lard and cream, whereas trans fat is found in baked goods, snack and fried foods, and margarine (McKinley). Unsaturated fat is the ‘good’ fat of the three, and is usually found in olive oil, avocados, nuts and canola oil (McKinley). Unsaturated fat has even been shown to reduce the risk of having a heart attack (McKinley).

Macronutrients are important for survival, but micronutrients are just as important (McKinley). Micronutrients are nutrients that our bodies need in smaller amounts (McKinley). These micronutrients include vitamins, and minerals (McKinley). Our bodies also need water for survival; approximately 6-8 glasses a day (McKinley). Vitamins and minerals are essential to human health, but do not give you energy (McKinley). Although they do not give you energy, they assist in energy-yielding reactions and promote body growth and development (McKinley). Each vitamin and mineral plays a different role in each function of the body, and together keeps us alive (McKinley).

If all these nutrients are not consumed, our body becomes malnourished (Unicef). If a person suffers from malnutrition they can be more likely to obtain diseases, and it can also affect different functions of the body such as the brain, eyesight, organs, height, weight, and the formation of body parts (Unicef). Many problems with malnutrition can occur due to the lack of vitamins, minerals, and clean drinking water (Unicef). When a person lacks vitamins and minerals, they suffer from micronutrient malnutrition (Unicef). Malnutrition occurs most frequently in underdeveloped countries, and it is believed that nearly one third of children in developing countries are malnourished (Unicef). In the developing stages of life, breast milk can be a vital source of micronutrients for growing babies, but sometimes an improved diet for an adult can be unattainable (Unicef).

Remember food? :

Food not only brings long-term health to our lives, but can bring a spiritual and cultural base back into our diet (Frolich pg.3). Food can also bring long-term health into farming and agricultural ecosystems (Frolich pg.3). Though internally humans are very similar, cultures can change people decision on the types of foods they consume. In the United States, our foods may be primarily imported (Frolich pg.3). Different cultures, and even different homes vary on what individuals consume (Frolich pg.3). Some cultures provide more home-cooking with local fresh ingredients from a garden, rather than from a grocery store like many in the U.S. (Frolich pg.3).
Nowadays food is usually found and produced in factories, instead of farmed (Frolich pg.3). Unfortunately this type of produce is not concerned about long-term health issues of consumers, or long-term productivity of the land (Frolich pg.3). Factory production only has to follow government regulations, not local ones, and many people in the U.S. don’t even know where their food comes from, or where it is raised (Frolich pg.3).

Citations:
Frolich, Larry. “Food Nutrition powerpoint” pg.1-5
Mader, Sylvia. “Human Biology 10th edition”. 2008
McKinley Health Center. “Macronutrients” http://www.mhc.uiuc.edu/Handouts/macronutrients.htm . 2007
National Digestive Diseases Information Clearinghouse. “Digestive system” http://digestive.niddk.nih.gov/ddiseases/pubs/yrdd/
UNICEF New Zealand “What is nutrition?”. 2007
World Health Organization. http://www.who.int/en/. 2007

Picture citations:
Glycolosis - http://staff.jccc.net/PDECELL/cellresp/glycolysis.gif
Krebs cycle - http://www.ithaca.edu/faculty/pmelcher/krebs_cycle.gif
Amino acid chart - http://www.geisswerks.com/ryan/veg/veggie_guide_files/image002.gif
Digestion - http://www.med.miami.edu/med/gastroenterology/images/digestion_med.jpg
Type II diabetes - http://www.soylabs.com/img/diabetes_type2.jpg
Digestive system II - http://www.amwa-doc.org/images/digestive.jpg
Complex carbohydrates - http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/images/ency/fullsize/19529.jpg
Fiber - http://medicineworld.org/images/blogs/fiber-diet-761055.jpg
Protein - http://www.drpbody.com/images/meatpoultryfish.gif
Saturated fat - http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/images/ency/fullsize/19513.jpg
Vitamins - http://schoolclub.taps-nodes.co.za/printable/images/food_table.gif
Food factories - http://businessnetwork.theage.com.au/verve/_resources/430_biznet_nov18.jpg

Compendium Review #1 (Unit II)

2007-06-21T21:59:00.000-07:00

Cellular respiration and oxygen:

Breathing seems like a simple process to all human beings. In reality there is a complicated network inside of our bodies that keeps us alive by keeping it full of oxygen. In order for an organism to breathe, it has to go through a process known as respiration (Mader). This is when oxygen flows into the body, and carbon dioxide is released (Unknown). This oxygen flow goes from the lungs, lead into the bloodstream, and then into the cells (Mader).

There are two different types of respiration. These include aerobic, and anaerobic (Unknown). Aerobic is respiration that requires the presence of oxygen, while anaerobic respiration does not (Unknown). There are also several ways oxygen gets into the bloodstream, and cells (Unknown). Some of these processes include direction diffusion, and diffusion into blood (Unknown). When direct diffusion occurs, oxygen is passed from the environment through cells on an animal’s surface and then into individual cells inside (Unknown). This type of respiration is usually conducted by sponges, jellyfish, and flatworms (Unknown).

Also, microbes, fungi, and plants obtain oxygen by cellular respiration, which occurs because of the direct diffusion through their surfaces (Unknown). Diffusion into the blood refers to oxygen passing through a moist layer of cells on the surface of the body (Unknown). After that, it passes through capillary walls, and into the bloodstream (Unknown). This is considered a little more advanced than direct diffusion, and segmented worms, and amphibians use this type of respiration (Unknown).

When it comes to insects and humans, they also have different types of respiration. Insects use tracheal respiration, which involves air moving through openings in the surface of the body known as spiracles (Unknown). The trachea is divided into many smaller branches that are in contact with muscles and organs (Unknown). In larger insects, their body movements assist their tracheal air movement (Unknown). Humans and mammals on the other hand undergo a much more complicated process (Unknown). Lungs are the special organs composed of many chambers filled with blood capillaries that help us breathe. After air enters the lungs, oxygen is diffused into the blood stream through the wall of the blood capillaries (Unknown). After flowing through the capillaries in the lungs, it moves to different muscles and organs in the body (Unknown).

Cardiovascular system and blood:

The cardiovascular system consists of the heart, arteries, veins and capillaries (Unknown 2). The cardiovascular system is also known as the circulatory system, in which blood is pumped by the heart around a circle of vessels, and passes through different parts of the body (Unknown 2).
When it comes to the survival of embryos, they depend on the circulation of blood that maintains homeostasis (Unknown 2). The cardiovascular system appears early in development, and reaches a functional state long before any other major organ system (Unknown 2). The heart begins to beat regularly within the forth week following fertilization (Unknown 2).

One of the most important roles the cardiovascular system has is maintaining homeostasis (Unknown 2). Homeostasis depends on the continuous and controlled movement of blood through the capillaries that permeate every tissue and reach every cell in the body (Unknown 2). Other numerous control mechanisms help regulate and integrate functions in the cardiovascular system in order to supply blood to specific areas (Unknown 2). These mechanisms are what ensure a constant internal environment for each body cell (Unknown 2).
Another important characteristic of human life is blood. Blood is responsible for transporting oxygen from the lungs to body tissue and carbon dioxide from body tissue to the lungs (Franklin). Blood is also responsible for transporting nourishment from digestion and hormones from glands throughout the body, and transporting disease fighting substances to the tissue and waste to the kidneys (Franklin).
The average human adult has approximately five liters of blood inside their body (Franklin). Human blood is also considered a living entity because it contains living cells that are alive (Franklin). The main cells in the blood stream are red blood cells and white blood cells (Franklin). These cells are mainly responsible for nourishing and cleaning the body (Franklin).

Immunity and Microbes:

Microbes, or microorganisms are too small to be seen by the human eye (Mader). Microbes can be bacteria, fungi, archaea, or protists (Mader). These organisms tend to be unicellular, but can also be multi-cellular also (Mader).

Microbes can live nearly anywhere on earth where there is water (Mader).
They can even live in hot springs, the ocean floor, and deep inside rocks within the earth’s crust (Mader). These organisms are important in nutrient recycling in ecosystems where they act as decomposers (Mader).
Microbes, such as bacteria, are prokaryotic cells (Frolich pg.2). Most of the life on Earth is bacterial, but not disease-causing (Frolich pg.2). This is where the immune system comes into play, and must recognize the cells that aren’t disease carrying (Frolich pg.2). Also, if viruses are escaped parts of a genome or DNA of different organisms, they won’t be able to survive outside the cell (Frolich pg.2).
White blood cells are what fight invading microbes as part of the immune system (Frolich pg.2). These white blood cells include lymphocytes, monoscytes, and basophils (Frolich pg.2). Lymphocytes are what recognize invaders, while basophils release certain substances that ‘alert’ the other cells (Frolich pg.2). Then the monocytes actually engulf microbes (Frolich pg.2). These invaders are viruses, bacteria or any other substance that is not part of our body (Frolich pg.2).
During early human development, immune cells are exposed to the body’s own cells and proteins on their surface (Frolich pg.2). Also, the immune cell precursors that attack our own cells are eliminated, and the cells that recognize other cells continue to develop as T-cells and B-cells (Frolich pg.2). The T-cells and B-cells are what recognize the foreign proteins that are on invaders but have been selected so they try to kill the body’s own cells (Frolich pg.2).

B-cells also help in producing highly variable proteins known as antibodies (Frolich pg.3). Antibodies are responsible for the recognition of foreign proteins on the invaders, also known as antigens (Frolich pg.3). These antibodies are free in the blood stream, and the proteins that they recognize are made by transcription and translation of certain regions of the DNA (Frolich pg.3).
In order to get rid of invaders, phagocytes move through blood, lymph and into connective tissues (Frolich pg.3). After that, macrophages engulf and dissolve the invading microbes. There are three main types of macrophages including langerhans, phagocytes, and microglial cells (Frolich pg.3). Langerhans cells are located in the skin, while phagocytes live in the blood (Frolich pg.3). The macrophages that are located in the central nervous system are known as microglial (Frolich pg.3). This type of immunity is known as non-specific immunity because it doesn’t depend on antibodies or B-cells and T-cells (Frolich pg.3). This type of immunity is also weak once an infection is already spread, and then specific immunity antibodies are needed into order to recognize an invader (Frolich pg.3).

AIDS:

AIDS is a term that is short for acquired immune deficiency syndrome, and HIV is short for human immunodeficiency virus (Frolich pg.4). HIV is a virus that kills or damages cells of the body’s immune system (Medline). HIV is most often spread through unprotected sex with an infected person (Medline). AIDS can also be spread by sharing drug needles, or through the contact with the blood of an infected person (Medline). AIDS can also be handed down to children of pregnant women (Medline).
Some of the first signs of HIV can be swollen glands, and flu-like symptoms (Medline). These signs can come and go a month or two after infection, and severe symptoms can even appear months or years after infection (Medline). This process can appear years later because the HIV virus doesn’t actually kill, but lowers body defenses as the T-cell count drop until the immune system can’t handle it anymore (Frolich pg.3). T-cells are able to recognize antigens, but they can’t actually do anything about it on their own (Frolich pg.3). Without T-cells most infections can not be stopped (Frolich pg.3).

Though these results are devastating, there are some treatments available (USA). Some Anti-HIV medications are used to control the reproduction of the virus, and also to slow the progression of HIV related diseases (USA). Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy is recommended treatment for HIV infection (USA). This treatment combines three or more anti-HIV medications do not cure HIV, and people taking these medications can still transmit HIV to others (USA). There are other available drugs for treatment, but the amount of pills people need to take differ from doctor to doctor (USA).
Though anyone can be infected with AIDS, and HIV, it is more widespread in Africa and Asia (Frolich pg.3). Even though this is true, 15,000 people in the U.S. alone die from AIDS, and more than 2.8 million deaths each year worldwide (Cruzan).

Citations:
Cruzan, Susan “US food and drug administration”. 2006 : http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/NEWS/2006/NEW01395.html
Franklin institute “Human blood”. 2007 : http://www.fi.edu/biosci/blood/blood.html
Frolich, Larry “Oxygen powerpoint slides” pg.2-3
Mader, Sylvia “Human Biology 10th edition”. 2008
Medline Plus “AIDS”. 2007 : http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/aids.html#skip
Unknown “Respiration” 2007 : http://www.scienceclarified.com/Qu-Ro/Respiration.html
Unknown 2 “Cardiovascular system” 2007 : http://training.seer.cancer.gov/module_anatomy/unit7_1_cardvasc_intro.html
USA Today “Treatment of AIDS”. 2001

Picture citations:
Lungs - http://fds.oup.com/www.oup.co.uk/images/oxed/children/yoes/humans/lungs.jpg
Sponge - http://www.hewit.com/acatalog/Images/p-sponge.jpg
Jellyfish - http://www.ices.dk/marineworld/photogallery/images/jellyfish.jpg
Flatworms - http://home.att.net/~larvalbugbio/flatworm.jpg
Segmented worms - http://www.biosbcc.net/ocean/marinesci/03ecology/sbimg/bch24.jpg
Amphibians - http://www.ashtonbiodiversity.org/images/amphibians.jpg
Insects - http://www.bestoday.com.au/billylids/images/insects.jpg
Trachea - http://library.thinkquest.org/5777/images/41b.gif
Embryo - http://www.scienceclarified.com/images/uesc_04_img0230.jpg
Microbes - http://www.astro.northwestern.edu/Astrobiology/JPG/Microbes.jpg
T – cell –http://www.lbl.gov/Publications/Currents/Archive/view-assets/Oct-03-2003/t-cell2.jpg
B – cell - http://www.aecom.yu.edu/aif/gallery/sem/b-cell-buds-virus_c2005AECO.gif
HIV map – http://web.mit.edu/jwalden/www/presentation/media/AIDS_Map_Adults1.gif
HIV - http://www.avert.org/photo_library/images/normal_photo_no_261.jpg

Unit 1 Evaluation

2007-06-17T15:58:00.000-07:00

1. What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of?
I am most proud of my lab project, and two compendium reviews. These took a lot of time, and I was excited about the finished work.
2. What two aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement?
I have had a lot of difficulty in getting pictures and the online lab assignments to post. Hopefully for the next unit I won’t have a problem in these areas, and be able to get started right away.
3. What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit?
If grades were based on how much time and effort you put into everything, whether or not it came out perfect with no problems, I would say I deserve an A. Because of my difficulty in posting things, and a couple assignments that need to be critiqued for the next unit, I would say that I’m expecting to get a B.
4. How could I perform better in the next unit?
I definitely underestimated the amount of time that it would take to complete this unit. Starting a little earlier, especially in the case of having problems, will be how I can make the next unit improve.

Online lab activity #2

2007-06-17T15:33:00.001-07:00

A genotype is what determines a specific trait. A genotype is considered the recessive trait, and doesn’t actually show, but is internal. For example, a classic study on yellow and green peas showed that even though the pea looked green, its genotype was still yellow, although you couldn’t see it.

A phenotype also determines a specific trait. Just opposite of the genotype, it is considered the dominant trait, and actually shows, and is external. Again, the yellow and green peas study shows that peas are green, which means that its phenotype is green, and this is what is visible.

An allele is a DNA coding which is located on a chromosome. Usually these alleles are sequences that code for a gene. Therefore genotypes for a gene is a set of alleles.

Dominant genes refer to how alleles interact to produce a phenotype. This again is visible to the naked eye, and is controlled by a single gene with two alleles.

Recessive genes are genes that are still phenotypically expressed in a homozygous state, but its ‘expression’ is masked through the presence of a dominant gene, making it non-visible to the naked eye.

Microscope lab #1

2007-06-17T15:15:00.001-07:00

The Stage is the flat platform where you place your slides. Stage clips are what holds the slides in place. If the microscope has a mechanical stage, it has the ability to move the slide around by turning two knobs. One moves it left and right, the other moves it up and down. This is best adjusted while you are looking at the microscope, not through it.

The Focus knob is used in order for you to be able to see the slides located on the stage. This also controls the height of the condenser. This is best adjusted while you are looking through the microscope, and focus upward until the image is sharp enough for you to see.

The iris is located directly under the stage, and control the angle of light that is coming in. This is important because you don’t want too much light coming in when you are looking at a slide. This can be adjusted while you are looking into the microscope, or while you are looking at it.

The oculars are the eyepieces that you look through when viewing a slide on the microscope. These can be produced in a number of different designs in order to fit the right slide type with the right ocular. Again, this is best adjusted when you are looking through the microscope.

The objective with the condenser is essentially the entire microscope. This is the body and type of a microscope. This can be adjusted by replacing it, and buying a higher quality product.

Ethical issues essay #1 : "Gender Discrimination"

2007-06-17T14:03:00.000-07:00

Gender Discrimination

In vitro fertilization is a procedure in which a woman’s ova are removed from her ovaries, and a man’s sperm are used to fertilize the ova in a laboratory. This fertilized egg is then implanted in a woman’s uterus. This process has become increasingly successful with success rate of about 25%. Furthermore, these reproductive technologies are becoming increasingly sophisticated. Parents can now even choose the sex of their baby.
One technique is to separate sperm carrying the X and Y chromosome and later implant the ‘desired’ gender into a woman’s uterus. In another technique, eggs are removed from a woman and fertilized with sperm using in vitro fertilization. Only three days after fertilization, the embryos can be tested to determine their sex. This process can be done through prenatal genetic screening. If the embryo happens to be the ‘desired’ gender, then the embryo is implanted into the mother. If the embryo is not the ‘desired’ gender, then the life of that embryo is terminated, just on the basis of its sex.
This process can lead to many gender discrimination problems. If this technology becomes even more popular, what would stop people from only choosing to have a baby if their eyes were the color that they wanted them to be, or their hair color, or even their personality traits? In some countries this process is illegal, but there are no laws against it occurring in the United States.
Imagine if this technology would have occurred thousands of years ago, when females were not thought of having any value. If this process was available back then, would females be an ‘endangered species’. Growing technology has helped and saved many lives, especially in hospitals and treatment facilities, but technology is not without ethical issues of practice. Yes, technology has made life easier, as well as more enjoyable for many people. But if we keep going forth with these procedures, and not accessing the ethics of them, we could be looking at a very grim future. If different sources of technology can one day do everything humans do, what would stop the human race from dying out?

Unit 1 Lab Project

2007-06-17T09:32:00.000-07:00

Tamara James
Human Biology 156
Unit 1 Lab Project

Unit 1 Lab project (Building a cell)

Introduction:

This is a model that represents a cell, all of its main organelles, and what their roles are in the cell. The organelles presented in this model include the cell membrane, the nucleus and its nuclear membrane, the endoplasmic reticulum, rough and smooth, ribosomes, the golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vesicles, mitochondria, and cilia made of microtubules.
This model also represents DNA and cell genetics. This model shows multiple chromosomes found in the cell nucleus, DNA, the replication of DNA, mitosis, DNA transcription to mRNA, mRNA translation to proteins, and tRNA.
Cell membrane – A semi-permeable lipid bilayer which mainly contains proteins and lipids. The cell membrane is involved in several cellular processes, and also serves as the attachment point for the intracellular cytoskeleton.
Nucleus - The largest part of the cell. The nucleus is located in the middle of the cell, and is bound by a porous nuclear envelope (nuclear membrane). The nucleus contains several important characteristics of a cell such as DNA, ribosomal RNA, proteins called chromatin, and nucleoplasm.
Endoplasmic reticulum – An organelle found in eukaryotic cells. The rough endoplasmic reticulum is a transport for ribosomes. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum doesn’t have any ribosomes, which allows an increase in surface area for the action or storage of key enzymes.
Ribosomes - Ribosomes are organelles made of RNA and protein. They are located within the cytoplasm known as polyribosomes. This type of ribosome is used for various purposes in the cell, and some ribosomes may be eventually exit the cell, or become part of the plasma membrane.
Golgi Apparatus – Consists of a stack of cisternae which is bounded by the membrane located between the endoplasmic reticulum and the surface of the cell. This structure is responsible for processing the proteins that are synthesized in the endoplasmic reticulum.
Lysosomes – An organelle that contains digestive enzymes. They digest exhausted organelles, viruses, bacteria, and food particles.
Vesicles – An organelle that is relatively small, and is responsible for storage, transport, and waste.
Mitochondria – Mitochondria are found in eukaryotic cells and are
known as the powerhouse of the cell. They are in charge of converting the chemical energy of glucose products into the chemical energy of ATP molecules. This process is known as cellular respiration.
Cilia – Is one of the main organelles responsible for movement. It is made of microtubules, which are small cylindrical structures. The ciliated cells in our respiratory tract keep our lungs clean by removing trapped debris within the mucus in our throats.
Chromosome – This is a large macromolecule from DNA. It contains genes and other nucleotide sequences.
DNA – Deoxyribonucleic acid. This contains genetic instructions for the development of living things. They are considered the blueprints of life, and store long-term information.
Mitosis – Process when a cell duplicates its chromosomes to generate two identical cells.
mRNA – Messenger ribonucleic acid. This is what carries coding information to the sites of protein synthesis.
tRNA – Transfer ribonucleic acid. This transfers specific amino acids to a growing polypeptide chain.

List of cell parts and representations:
* Cell : Represented by a styrofoam disk
* Cell membrane : Represented by blue spray paint
* Nucleus : Represented by half a styrofoam ball (painted black)
* Endoplasmic Reticulum : Represented by a fruit roll-up
* Ribosomes : Represented by lentils
* Golgi Apparatus : Represented by a ridged fruit roll-up
* Lysosomes : Represented by crunch chocolate circles
* Vesicles : Represented by green split peas
* Mitochondria : Represented by pinto beans
* Cilia – Represented by spaghetti
* Chromosome – Represented by white cheddar sticks
* DNA – Represented by blue spray painted, and white cue-tips
* mRNA – Represented by a red chip clip
* tRNA – Represented by white cue-tips

The model itself:
Here are all the parts of a cell, and the beginning of my project
Here are more supplies I needed for my project
Here is the cell and nucleus after being spray-painted
Here is a picture of the finished cell (spaghetti on outside
Represents the cilia).
Here is a picture of the ribosomes on the rough endoplasmic reticulum
Here is a picture of the ‘DNA’ before being painted
Here is a picture of my cell, mitosis, multiple chromosomes,
tRNA, DNA and its replication, mRNA and its translation
into proteins, and cell metabolism.

Here is a picture of tRNA, DNA, mRNA, and cell metabolism
Here is a picture of the chromosomes, and mitosis

Conclusion:

In conclusion this model was difficult to show cell genetics, and its metabolism, and was very time consuming. However this helped me learn all the organelles in a cell, and each of their specific function. This was a good hands on experience in order to obtain the proper knowledge of a working cell.

Compendium Review #2 (Unit one)

2007-06-17T09:30:00.000-07:00

Genes are a unit of heredity existing as alleles on the chromosomes (Mader G-8). These genes are in the form of DNA molecules, which allow cells and other organisms to reproduce and replicate (Mader pg.4). Before a cell can reproduce, DNA has to be copied in its exact form in order to make genes that are passed on to our children (Mader pg.4). Genes start to develop in the nucleus, which contains threadlike microscopic bodies known as chromosomes (Unknown). Each species has a different number of chromosomes, but human typically have 46 or two pairs of 23 (Unknown). These chromosomes are made up of a large macromolecule from DNA (Psych book). They contain genes and other nucleotide sequences important for living organisms (psych book). Sperm and eggs from men and women both carry genes contributed by each person. When a sperm fuses with an egg, this combination of genes allow for the reproduction of offspring (Mader pg.4).

Genes and Chromosomes

In order to reproduce a cell, the cell needs to undergo mitosis. By definition, mitosis is a type of nuclear division which is called duplication division because each new nucleus contains the same number and kind of chromosomes as the former cell (Mader pg.379). During this process the sister chromatids of each chromosome separate and become to daughter nuclei (Mader pg.379).
Mitosis
Cell metabolism is all of the chemical reactions that occur in a cell (Mader G-12). DNA holds one of the most important roles in cell metabolism, because of its ability to replicate and make genes that make every human being different from one another. Cell metabolism also often requires metabolic pathways that are carried out by enzymes, and arranged in order (Mader pg 53). Another aspect that is very important to cell metabolism is cellular respiration. This is the process of producing ATP (Mader pg 53).
Cell Metabolism
Many biotechnological products are genetically engineered from bacteria, plants and animals (Mader pg 460). Genetically engineering is bacteria that can be selected for their ability to degrade a particular substance, which can be enhanced through this process (Mader pg 460). According to the text, genetically engineering could help in a situation where naturally occurring bacteria that eats oil do a more extensive job, such as clean whole beaches and oil spills (Mader pg 460). This engineering process is also known as recombinant DNA technology and are used to produce transgenic bacteria that are grown in large vats called bioreactors (Mader pg 460).

Bacteria Bioreactor plants Recombinant DNA
Cancer is defined as a malignant tumor whose non-differentiated cells exhibit loss of contact inhibition, uncontrolled growth, and the ability to invade tissue and metastasize (Mader G-3). According to the text, cancer is a genetic disease (Mader pg 405). In order to go from interphase to mitosis, a molecule known as cyclin needs to be present (Mader pg 405). When cancer actually begins to develop, the cell cycle repeats itself, mainly due to mutations in two types of genes (Mader pg 406). These two types of genes are Proto-oncogenes, and Tumor-suppressor genes. The Proto-oncogenes are what code for proteins that promote the cell cycle, and are considered the cause of acceleration of the cells cycle (Mader pg 406). The Tumor-suppressor genes also code for proteins, and are often considered the inhibit acceleration of the cells cycle (Mader pg 406).
Cancer cell
In early fetal development, there are three main stages a fetus goes through. These stages include the Germinal Stage, the Embryonic Stage, and the Fetal Stage (Feldman pg 75). The Germinal stage occurs from fertilization to two weeks of age. This is the shortest stage of prenatal development, but important because this is when the placenta is able to be used for nutrients and waste disposal through the umbilical cord (Feldman pg 74). The Embryonic stage occurs two weeks to eight weeks following fertilization (Feldman pg 75). This is the most important stage because the entire development of a child occurs during this stage (Feldman pg 75). There are three layers that form a different set of structures as a child’s development proceeds (Feldman pg 75). These layers are called the ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm. The ectoderm is where skin, hair, teeth, sense organs, the brain, and spinal cord will develop (Feldman pg 75). The endoderm produces the digestive system, liver, pancreas, and respiratory system (Feldman pg 75). Lastly, the mesoderm is where the muscles, bones, blood, and circulatory system are formed (Feldman pg 75). The last stage in fetal development is the fetal stage. This occurs from eight weeks until birth. Now the child is considered a fetus, and this is where labor comes into play (Feldman pg 75).
Fetal Development
During all of these stages genes and chromosomes will be passed down to a child, and different aspects of their life are inherited (Feldman pg 125). Genes are what makes us look, and where different aspects of our behavior come from (Feldman pg 125). Chromosomes also play a very important role, and without even just one of them could cause several problems. For example, Fragile X syndrome occurs when a particular gene is injured on the X chromosome, which results in mild to moderate mental retardation (Feldman pg 56). Down syndrome can also occur when the presence of an extra chromosome is on the 21st pair. Another disorder is Klinefelter’s syndrome. Klinefelter’s syndrome occurs when there is the presence of an extra X chromosome, which accounts for genetic ‘gender’ related abnormalities (Feldman pg 56). These abnormalities occur from receiving the improper number of sex chromosomes (Feldman pg 56). In conclusion, having the correct amount of chromosomes and properly working genes can mean a huge difference in people’s lives.

Down syndrome chromosome Klinefelter’s syndrome Fragile X syndrome

Citations:
Mader, Sylvia. Human Biology 10th edition. 2008
Feldman, Robert. Development across the life span 4th edition 2006.
Unknown. Basic genetics:. http://www.dnatesting.biz/Basic_Genetics/basic_genetics.html
Picture citations:
Gene and chromosomes - http://people.na.infn.it/~nicodem/research/cell_genes.jpg
Mitosis - http://www.dartmouth.edu/~cbbc/courses/bio4/bio4-lectures/images/mitosis.JPG
Cell metabolism - http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/bin/n/v/CellMetabolismArt.jpg
Bacteria - http://www.scharfphoto.com/fine_art_prints/archives/199812-026-Staph-Bacteria.jpg
Bioreactor plant - http://www.pharmaceutical-technology.com/projects/sbl_vaccin/images/sbl1.jpg
Recombinant DNA - http://www.gene.com/gene/research/biotechnology/images/expressionofdna.jpg
Cancer cell - http://www.hlb.com/inovlog/archives/Cancer%20cell1.jpg
Fetal development - http://www.orwelltoday.com/babyub2.jpg
Down syndrome - http://library.thinkquest.org/04oct/00880/plaatjes/trisomie-21-180.jpg
Klinefelter’s syndrome - http://www.healthofchildren.com/images/gech_0001_0002_0_img0156.jpg
Fragile X chromosomes - http://www.ikm.jmu.edu/Buttsjl/ISAT493/Fragile%20X%20Syndrome/fragilearea.jpg

Compendium Review #1 (Unit One)

2007-06-16T06:47:00.000-07:00

Cells (The basic characteristic of life):

A cell is the basic unit of life (Mader pg.42). Without them we wouldn’t have humans, animals, or even plants, because all living things are made up of cells (Mader pg.42)

Animal Cell Human Cell Plant Cell

Humans alone are composed of millions of cells (Unknown). Each cell in the human body came from a single fertilized egg (Unknown). This process allows new cells to arise from preexisting cells (Mader pg.42). “These cells are the smallest unit of life that can reproduce, respond to certain stimuli, remain homeostatic, grow and develop, take in and use materials from the environment, and become adapted to the environment” (Mader pg.42). All of these processes from a single cell come together, and make up a very complex human life.
There are two main types of cells that are vital to all life forms. These are Prokaryotic, and Eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus, the structure where DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is found (Mader pg.43). Even though Prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus, there are still DNA molecules loose in the semi-fluid medium known as cytoplasm (Frolich pg.2).

Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

Prokaryotic cells also have cell membranes, small ribosomes, microtubule structures such as flagella and cilia, and mitochondria and chloroplasts which have their own independent DNA (Frolich pg.2). These cells are fairly small and simple cells (Frolich pg.2). Interesting enough, these cells are made up of bacteria and archaea (Mader pg.44). Usually bacteria are known for causing viruses and sickness, but they are also very important in the environment (Mader pg.44). They help us make a variety of products including biotechnological goods (Mader pg.44).
There are also more complex cells to all living things. These cells are known as eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotic cells are approximately one hundred times the size of prokaryotic cells, and are much more complex (Frolich pg.2). Eukaryotic cells are said to have evolved from the archaea, which make it possible for these cells to survive extreme temperature and acidic environments (Mader pg.44). All eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus, which store DNA (Mader pg.44). These cells also have a cell membrane, mitochondria, large ribosomes, and membrane-bound organelles (Frolich pg.2). All multi-cellular organisms such as plants and animals are made up of eukaryotic cells (Frolich pg.2).

Molecules of life:

Along with cells are molecules, which also help make up all living things. Some of the main molecules that are most important to our existence are carbohydrates, proteins, fats, DNA and RNA (Frolich pg.1).
Carbohydrates, which break down into simple sugars, are mainly used for the storage of energy (Frolich pg.1). These simple sugars are used in order to fuel cellular metabolism in the mitochondria (Frolich. Pg.1). Although many people think of carbohydrates in terms of gaining weight, they are very important to human survival. In fact, 60-70% of everyone’s diet should contain carbohydrates in order to do any activities (Mader pg.29).

Carbohydrates DNA RNA

Proteins are another molecule that is important to human life. Proteins come in a very complex form, derived from amino acids (Frolich pg.1). These proteins allow chemical reactions to speed up through a process called catalyzing (Frolich pg.1). This in turn allows for many other processes in the molecule to occur.
What is said to be “fundamental to life and origins” (Frolich pg.2) are fats. Fats are organic molecules that contain glycerol and fatty acids, which are found in adipose tissue (Mader G-7). Fats act as a long-term energy storage for mammals and other vertebrae (Frolich pg.2). Again, people may think of fat in terms of health and diet, but based on a 2,000 calorie diet, humans should have 65g daily (Mader pg.31).
One of the most important molecules to even have life is DNA. DNA, short for deoxyribonucleic acid, is the genetic material of nearly all organisms (Mader pg.35). By definition, DNA is a nucleic acid polymer produced from covalent bonding of nucleotide monomers that contain the sugar deoxyribose (Mader G-6). DNA not only stores information, but replicates and transmits this information when a cell or organism reproduces. (Mader pg.35). Without DNA, we would cease to have humans, or several other organisms.
Another molecule crucial in getting messages to the rest of our body is RNA. RNA is short for ribonucleic acid. By definition, RNA is a nucleic acid produced from covalent bonding of nucleotide monomers that contain the sugar ribose, which occurs in three different forms: messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA, and transfer RNA (Mader G-16).

Cell Structure and Function:
Some of the main functions of a cell are provided by the nucleus, ribosomes, cilia, flagella, and mitochondria.

Nucleus Ribosomes Mitochondria

The Nucleus is the largest part of the cell. The nucleus is located in the middle of the cell, and is bound by a porous nuclear envelope (Frolich pg.4). The nucleus contains several important characteristics of a cell such as DNA, ribosomal RNA, proteins called chromatin, and nucleoplasm (Frolich pg.4).
Following the nucleus are ribosomes. Ribosomes are organelles made of RNA and protein, and are located on the endoplasmic reticulum (Frolich pg.4). Ribosomes are also located within the cytoplasm known as polyribosomes (Mader pg.49). These ribosomes are used for various purposes in the cell, and some ribosomes may be eventually exit the cell, or become part of the plasma membrane (Mader pg.49).
Cilia and Flagella are both responsible for movement (Mader pg.51). They are both made of microtubules, which by definition are small cylindrical structures that contain 13 rows of the protein tubulin around an empty central core (Mader G12). The ciliated cells in our respiratory tract keep our lungs clean by removing trapped debris within the mucus in our throats (Mader pg.51).
Lastly, the powerhouse of the cell is mitochondria (Mader pg.52). The mitochondria are responsible for converting the chemical energy of glucose products into the chemical energy of ATP molecules (Mader pg.52). This process is known as cellular respiration (Mader pg 52). Mitochondria are found in eukaryotic cells, but are said to be derived from an engulfed prokaryotic cell (Frolich pg.5).

Cell organelles and metabolism:
Cell membrane or plasma membrane is what separates a cell from the outside world (Frolich pg.3). This membrane has a phospholipids bi-layer, embedded with proteins, and contains cholesterol for support (Frolich pg.3). It also has carbohydrates which are located on proteins and lipids, and is selectively permeable. Selectively permeable means that the cell membrane filters the type of substances that it wants to let in (Frolich pg.3).
One component of a cell that is vital in terms of cellular respiration is metabolism (Mader pg 53). Metabolism is all the chemical reactions that occur within a cell (Mader pg 53). Metabolism usually requires metabolic pathways in which processes are carried out by enzymes in a cell (Mader pg.53).

Metabolism

Tissue Types:
Millions of cells, alone with the help of metabolism are what make up another crucial component of human life, which is tissue (Frolich pg.6). There are four main types of tissue: Connective, Muscular, Nervous, and Epithelial (Frolich pg.6).

Connective tissue is important for binding and supporting different parts of the body (Frolich pg.6). This type of tissue has specialized cells known as ground substance and protein fibers (Frolich pg.6). Ground substance and protein fibers are what make up the fibrous, supportive and fluid tissue, the three types of connective tissue (Frolich pg.6). Connective tissue is responsible for binding tendons, bone, and cartilage (Frolich pg.7). It is also responsible for supporting blood vessels, nerves of cell population, such as the ones in blood or bone marrow (Frolich pg.7)
Another type of tissue that allows for body movement is muscle tissue (Frolich pg.7). Muscle tissue is mainly made up of the protein fibers actin and myosin (Frolich pg.7). There are also three different types of muscle tissue that have importance are skeletal, smooth, and cardiac tissue.
An additional type of tissue which is responsible for communication between cells is nervous tissue (Frolich pg.7). Nervous tissue needs sensory input, integration of data, and motor output in order to allow this communication (Frolich pg.7). In this tissue there are two major cell types accountable for communicating. These cells are known as neurons, which carry messages, and neuroglia, which support neurons (Frolich pg.7).
Lastly, the type of tissue that lines the body cavity is known as epithelial tissue (Frolich pg.6). This tissue also covers the surface of human bodies, and is located in glands. Epithelial tissue is made up of groups of cells that form a tight and continuous network (Frolich pg.6).

Citations
Animal cell picture - http://www.animalport.com/img/Animal-Cell.jpg
Human cell picture - http://www.dnatesting.biz/Basic_Genetics/animal_cell.gif
Plant cell picture - http://www.eecs.berkeley.edu/Programs/doublex/spring03/strawberrydna_files/image003.jpg
Pro. Cell - http://facstaff.uww.edu/wentzl/prokaryote.gif
Dna - http://files.turbosquid.com/Preview/Content_on_2_26_2005_13_38_09/DNA8-400.jpg71abe163-6969-448a-8c20-b7209efeefb0Large.jpg
Carbs - http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.chemistryland.com/ElementarySchool/BuildingBlocks/CarbohydratesCO2water.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.chemistryland.com/ElementarySchool/BuildingBlocks/BuildingOrganic.htm&h=345&w=500&sz=44&hl=en&start=9&tbnid=SZ74a_cHGyte2M:&tbnh=90&tbnw=130&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dcarbohydrates%26gbv%3D2%26svnum%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG
Rna - http://leiwenwu.tripod.com/rna.ht4.jpg
Nucleus - http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/s2s/latest/cell1/src/images/nucleus.jpg
Ribosomes - http://www.williamsclass.com/SeventhScienceWork/ImagesCells/Ribosomes.gif
Mitochondria - http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/mitochondria/images/mitochondriafigure1.jpg
Tissue types - http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/images/ency/fullsize/8682.jpg
Metabolism - http://img.search.com/thumb/8/8b/Metabolism1.png/350px-Metabolism1.png

Mader, Sylvia. Human Biology 10th ed. 2008
Frolich, Larry. Cell powerpoint slides
Unknown. Basic Genetics. http://www.dnatesting.biz/Basic_Genetics/basic_genetics.html

Introduction

2007-05-28T23:44:00.000-07:00

My name is Tamara James, and I’m in section 10001. I would have to say my favorite artist is Monet. I am taking this class as a general education requirement for my major. I hope that I will have a better understanding of Human Biology, and be able to use it in my future endeavors. I love the outdoors, listening to music, and spending time with my family and friends.